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Book 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



HOME AND FARM FOOD 
PRESERVATION 



BY 

WILLIAM V. CRUESS 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY (zYMOLOGy) 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1918 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1918 
Bt THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1918. 



JUL 17 1918 

DLA49&758 

11 * / 



PREFACE 

Since early historical time food preservation has been 
second only in importance to food production. Grapes 
and other fruits were dried by the ancients to preserve 
them; fruit juices were fermented to make wines and 
vinegars; cereals and vegetables were stored to protect 
them against moisture and decay; olives were preserved 
by salting; and meats were salted, dried, and smoked. 
The use of sugar and vinegar in preserving fruits and 
vegetables came later. The preservation of foods by 
sterilization in sealed containers is a development of the 
nineteenth century and dates from its discovery by Nich- 
olas Appert in France about 1800. Cold storage, as a 
means of preserving all perishable products, has, during 
the past century, developed into a very great industry. 

Three billion cans of food, valued retail at $600,000,000, 
were sold in the United States in 1916. The meat pack- 
ing and cold storage industries compare favorably with 
the canning industries in size. The wholesale value of 
the raisin crop in California is over $10,000,000 an- 
nually. The other dried fruit industries are smaller but 
their aggregate value amounts to many millions of dollars 
yearly in the United States. From this, the importance 
of commercial food preservation may be seen. 

Commercial food preservation cares for the bulk of the 
food products but beside the food so preserved, there 
are many millions of jars and cans of fruits and vege- 
tables, glasses of jellies, jams, and marmalades and many 
thousands of hams and bacons " put up," by the house- 
wife and farmer. Much food that would otherwise be 
wasted is saved and in addition a varied diet through- 
out the year at low cost is made available in many homes. 



vi PREFACE 

Usually this work is done over a hot kitchen stove 
during the rush of the fruit or vegetable season and, 
added to other household duties, becomes a heavy 
burden. The methods are empirical and by " rule of 
thumb"; consequently they are not well understood 
and not especially interesting. 

This book aims to tell the " why " of the various 
methods of food preservation, to present labor saving 
methods and to give simple and explicit directions that 
may be easily followed. When the principles of the 
various methods are understood the directions given 
can be modified to suit changed conditions and the work 
will prove very much more interesting because the rea- 
sons for the various steps will be known. 

The book is divided into three sections, namely: 
"The Theory of Food Preservation," "Methods of 
Food Preservation," and " Food Preservation Recipes." 
By reading the first two sections, the fundamental prin- 
ciples and an understanding of the general application 
of these principles will be obtained. This will be of great 
assistance in intelligently carrying out the specific direc- 
tions given in the recipes in the third section. 

The material presented is designed primarily for the 
housewife and farmer, to assist them in preserving sur- 
plus farm products for their own use. However, in many 
places, the food products, if carefully and attractively 
prepared, can be sold at a good profit, in this way af- 
fording an extra source of income. Often commercial 
factories develop from such small beginnings. 

It is hoped also that the material presented will be of 
value and interest to domestic science teachers and 
canning demonstrators. 

The aim has been to so present the principles and 
practices of preservation of food in the home that the 
work will appear more fascinating and less burdensome 
and that the results obtained will be more successful. 



PREFACE vii 

Ihe author wishes to express his appreciation of the 
many valuable and helpful suggestions given by Professor 
F. T. Bioletti during the preparation of the manuscript 
for this book. 

W. V. Cruess. 



CONTENTS 

PART I. THEORY OF FOOD PRESERVATION 

CHAPTER I 

Why Food Spoils 

page 

1. Molds 3 

2. Yeasts 5 

3. Bacteria 6 

4. Spoiling of Foods by Chemical and Physical Changes .... 7 

CHAPTER II 
Ways of Preventing Spoiling 

A. Temporary Prevention of Spoiling 9 

5. Asepsis 9 

6. Cold Storage 9 

7. Exclusion of Moisture 10 

8. Use of Mild Antiseptics 10 

9. Pasteurization as a Means of Temporary Preservation. ... 11 

10. Exclusion of Air 12 

B. Permanent Prevention of Spoiling 12 

11. Preservation by Sterilization by Heat 13 

12. Preservation by Use of Antiseptics 14 

13. Preservation by Drying 16 

14. Preservation by Smoking 16 

15. Preservation by Fermentation 17 

16. Exclusion of Air 17 

ix 



I CONTENTS 

PART II. METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION 
CHAPTER III 

Canning Fruits 

page 

1. Picking 21 

2. Grading and Sorting 23 

3. Peeling, Pitting, Coring, and Cutting 23 

4. Jars 25 

5. Wax Top Cans 26 

6. Solder Top Cans 28 

7. Cooking the Fruit before Filling the Containers; or Hot 

Pack Method 29 

8. Filling Jars and Cans without Previous Cooking of the 

Fruit; or Cold Pack Method 30 

9. Sanitary Cans 32 

10. Sizes of Cans 34 

11. New Weights that Cans for Market must Contain 34 

12. Sirups and Hydrometers 37 

13. Cane vs. Beet Sugar 39 

14. Exhausting 40 

15. Sterilization of Fruits 41 

CHAPTER IV 

Canning Vegetables 

16. Canning Vegetables — Peeling and Preparing 45 

17. Blanching or Parboiling 46 

18. Chilling 48 

19. Brines and Acidified Brines ,. 48 

20. Addition of the Brine 50 

21. Sterilization 50 

(a) Pressure Sterilization 50 

(b) Intermittent or Three-Day Sterilization of Vege- 

tables at 212° F 52 

(c) Sterilization of Vegetables at 212° F. by One- 

Period Method 53 

(d) Sterilization by the Lemon Juice Method 53 



CONTENTS xi 
CHAPTER V 

Canning of Meats 

page 

22. Preparation of Meats for Canning 55 

23. Sterilization of Meats 56 

CHAPTER VI 
Storage and Spoiling of Canned Foods 

24. Storage of Canned Foods 57 

25. Spoiling of Canned Foods — Botulinus Poisoning 57 

CHAPTER VII 
Fruit Juices 

26. Fruits for Juice 60 

27. Crushing 61 

28. Heating before Pressing 62 

29. Pressing 63 

30. Clearing the Juice 64 

31. Bottling and Canning 66 

32. Pasteurization of Fruit Juices US 

CHAPTER VIII 

Fruit and Other Sirups 

33. Sources of Sirups 72 

34. Clearing the Juice 72 

35. Deacidification 72 

36. Concentration . . . . : 73 

37. Storing the Sirup 75 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IX 

Jellies and Marmalades 

page 

38. Fruits for Jelly 76 

39. Preparing and Cooking the Fruit 77 

40. Expressing and Clearing the Juice 79 

41. Testing for Pectin 79 

42. Testing for Acid 80 

43. Addition of Sugar 80 

44. Sheeting Test for Jelling Point 81 

45. Thermometer Test 81 

46. Hydrometer Test for Jelling Point 82 

47. Meaning of Thermometer and Hydrometer Tests 83 

48. Pouring and Cooling the Jelly 83 

49. Coating with Paraffin 83 

50. Sterilization of Jellies 84 

51. Jellies without Cooking 84 

52. Jelly Stocks 85 

53. Crystallization of Jellies 85 

54. Marmalades 85 



CHAPTER X 
Fruit Jams, Butters, and Pastes 

55. Jams 87 

56. Fruit Butters 87 

57. Fruit Pastes 88 

CHAPTER XI 
Fruit Preserves and Candied Fruits 

58. Preserves 89 

59. Candied Fruits 90 



CONTENTS xiii 
CHAPTER XII 

Fruit Drying 

page 

60. Fruit Drying — Importance of the Industry 93 

61. Gathering the Fruit 94 

62. Transfer to the Dry Yard 94 

63. Cutting and Peeling , 95 

64. Dipping Fruits before Drying 95 

65. Sulphuring Fruits before Drying 96 

66. Trays for Sun Drying 101 

67. Sun Drying 101 

68. Artificial Evaporation 104 

69. Sweating 109 

70. Processing and Packing 109 

CHAPTER XIII 
Vegetable Drying 

71. Vegetables for Drying 112 

72. Preparation 112 

73. Blanching 113 

74. Sulphuring .113 

75. Sun Drying 113 

76. Artificial Drying 114 

77. Processing Sun Dried Vegetables 115 

78. Packing and Storing Dried Vegetables 115 

CHAPTER XIV 

Vinegar Manufacture 

79. General Principles 116 

80. Raw Materials 116 

81. Crushing Fruits for Vinegar 117 



xiv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

82. Diluting Honey 117 

83. Preparation of Fruit Cores and Peels and Dried Fruits 

for Vinegar Making 118 

84. Addition of Yeast and Control of Alcoholic Fermentation. 118 

85. Pressing Fermented Fruits 119 

86. Removal of Sediment 120 

87. Adding Vinegar Starter 120 

88. Vinegar Fermentation 120 

89. Vinegar Generators 122 

90. Aging of Vinegar *. . 124 

91. Clearing the Vinegar 125 

92. Vinegar Diseases and Pests 125 

(a) Wine Flowers 125 

(b) Lactic Acid Bacteria 125 

(c) Vinegar Eels 126 



CHAPTER XV 
Fruit Wines 

93. Red Wine 127 

(a) Crushing 127 

(b) Yeast 127 

(c) First Fermentation 127 

(d) Pressing. 128 

(e) Final Fermentation 128 

(f) Settling and Filling Up 128 

(g) Racking 128 

(h) Aging 128 

(i) Clearing the Wine 129 

(j) Bottling 129 

94. White Wine 129 

(a) Crushing, Pressing, and Settling 129 

(b) Fermentation 129 

(c) Racking, Filling Up, Aging, Clearing 129 

95. Other Fermented Fruit Juices • 129 



CONTENTS xv 

CHAPTER XVI 

Preservation of Vegetables and Fruits by 
Salting and Pickling 

page 

96. Preservation of Vegetables by Salt 131 

(a) Dry Salting 131 

(b) Salt and Fermentation 132 

(c) Strong Brine 133 

97. Dill Pickles 134 

98. Pickling Vegetables in Vinegar 135 

(a) Storage in Brine 135 

(b) Removal of Salt " 136 

(c) Addition of Vinegar 136 

99. Pickling Fruits in Vinegar 136 

100. Olives 136 

(a) Pickled Ripe Olives 136 

(b) Green Olives 139 

(c) "Greek" Olives 139 

101. Tomato Ketchup 140 

(a) Pulping 140 

(b) Addition of Flavoring Materials 140 

(c) Boiling 141 

(d) Sterilizing 141 

102. Miscellaneous Tomato Products 141 

(a) Tomato Paste 141 

(b) Puree 142 

(c) Chili Sauce, Piccalilli, and Relishes 142 

CHAPTER XVII 
Preservation of Meat 

103. Salting Meats 143 

(a) Dry Salting 143 

(b) Preserving Meats in Brine 143 

104. Drying Meats 145 

105. Preservation of Meats by Smoking 145 

(a) Salting 145 • 



xvi CONTENTS 

PAGE 

(b) The Smoke House 146 

(c) Smoke Producing Substances 147 

(d) Length of Smoking 148 

(e) Storing Smoked Meats 148 

106. Miscellaneous Meat Products 148 

107. Preservation of Eggs with Water Glass 149 

CHAPTER XVIII 
Milk Products 

108. Sterilization and Pasteurization of Milk 150 

(a) Sterilization 150 

(b) Pasteurization of Milk in the Household 150 

109. Storage of Butter 151 

110. Cheese 152 

(a) "Cottage" Cheese. . 152 

(b) Cheddar Cheese 153 

(c) Other Types of Cheese 153 

PART III. FOOD PRESERVATION RECIPES 

CHAPTER XIX 
Fruit Canning Recipes 

1 . Canning Peaches 157 

2. Alternative Method for Canning Peaches 161 

3. Canning Apricots 162 

4. Lye Peeling Peaches and Apricots 163 

5. Canning Pears 163 

6. Canning Cherries 164 

7. Canning Apples 165 

8. Canning Plums 165 

9. Canning Rhubarb 166 

10. Canning Rhubarb without Sterilization 166 

11. Canning Figs 166 



CONTENTS xvii 

PAGE 

12. Canning Strawberries 167 

13. Canning Blackberries 168 

14. Canning Raspberries and Loganberries 168 

15. Canning Oranges 168 

16. Canning Grape Fruit 169 

17. Canning Grapes 169 

18. Canning Pineapple 170 

19. Canning Currants, Cranberries, and Gooseberries 170 

CHAPTER XX 
Canning Vegetables 

20. Canning Artichokes 171 

21. Canning Asparagus 172 

22. Canning Green String Beans and Wax Beans 173 

-23. Canning Beets 173 

24. Canning Carrots, Turnips, Parsnips, and Onions 174 

25. Canning Corn 175 

26. Canning Green Peas 175 

27. Canning Pimentos and Sweet Peppers 176 

28. Canning Pumpkin and Squash 176 

29. Canning Spinach and Other Greens 177 

30. Canning Tomatoes 177 

31. Canning Sweet Potatoes 178 

32. Canning Dried Beans 179 

33. Canning Hominy 179 

34. Canning Egg Plant 180 

35. Canning Okra 180 

CHAPTER XXI 
Canning Meats 

36. Canning Meats without Preliminary Cooking 182 

37. Canning Cooked Meats 182 

38. Canning Corned Beef 183 

39. Canning Fresh Fish 183 

40. Canning Kippered Fish 184 



xviii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXII 

Fruit Juices 

page 

41. Apple Juice 185 

42. Red Grape Juice 186 

43. Loganberry, Blackberry, and Raspberry Juices 188 

44. Lemon Juice 188 

45. Orange Juice 188 

46. Orange-Lemon Juice 189 

47. Grape Fruit Juice 189 

48. Pomegranate Juice 190 

49. Pineapple Juice 190 

50. Clarification of Fruit Juices 190 



CHAPTER XXIII 
Recipes for Sirups 

51. Fruit Sirups for Cooking Purposes 192 

52. Fruit Sirups for Table Use 193 

53. Fruit Sirups by Sun Evaporation 193 

54. Fruit Sirups Made by the Addition of Sugar 194 

55a. Sorghum Sirup 194 

55b. Manufacture of Sorghum on Small Commercial Scale. . . 194 

56. Sugar Beet Sirup 197 

CHAPTER XXIV 

Recipes for Jellies and Marmalades 

57. Jellies . 198 

58. Jelly Stocks 200 

59. Jellies without Cooking 200 

60. Orange Marmalade 201 

61. Grape Fruit and Other Marmalades 201 



CONTENTS xix 

CHAPTER XXV 

Recipes for Fruit Jams, Butters, and Pastes 

page 

62. Fruit Jams 202 

63. Fruit Butters with the Addition of Sugar 202 

64. Fruit Butters without the Addition of Sugar 203 

65. Fruit Pastes 203 

CHAPTER XXVI 

Recipes for Preserves 

66. Fig Preserves 205 

67. Peach, Pear, and Quince Preserves 205 

68. Strawberry Preserves 205 

69. Watermelon Preserves 206 

70. Tomato Preserves 206 

71. Preserved Kumquats 206 

72. Preserves made without Cooking 207 

CHAPTER XXVII 
Candied Fruits 

73. Candied Fruits with Use of Sugar Tester 208 

74. Candying Fruits without the Use of a Sugar Tester 209 

CHAPTER XXVIII 
Recipes for Drying Fruits 

75. Sun Drying Apricots, Pears, Peaches, and Apples 211 

76. Sun Drying Prunes 213 

77. Drying Thompson Seedless and Sultana Grapes 214 

78. Drying Muscat and "Currant" Grapes 215 

79. Packing Raisins 215 

80\ Sun Drying Cherries 215 



xx CONTENTS 

PAGE 

81. Sun Drying Figs 215 

82. Drying Fruits in Evaporators 216 

(a) Driers 216 

(b) Preparation of Fruit 216 

(c) Apples 216 

(d) Apricots and Peaches 216 

(e) Berries 216 

(f) Cherries 216 

(g) Pears 216 

(h) Prunes . 216 

(i) Grapes 216 

(j) Figs 217 

(k) Processing and Storing 217 



CHAPTER XXIX 
Recipes for Drying Vegetables 

83. Sun Drying String Beans and Peas 218 

84. Sun Drying Corn 219 

85. Sun Drying Irish Potatoes 219 

86. Sun Drying Sweet Potatoes 219 

87. Sun Drying Carrots, Turnips, Onions, Cabbage, and 

Cauliflower 219 

88. Sun Drying Beets, Pumpkin, and Squash 219 

89. Sun Drying Tomatoes 220 

90. Sun Drying Peppers 220 

91. Drying Vegetables in an Artificial Evaporator 220 

CHAPTER XXX 

Recipes for Vinegar Making 

92. Home Manufacture of Vinegar from Whole Fruits 222 

93. Vinegar from Cores, Peels, and Fruit Scraps 223 

94. Vinegar from Honey and Sirups 223 

95. Clarifying Vinegar 223 



CONTENTS xxi 

CHAPTER XXXI 

Recipes for Fruit Wines 

page 

96. Red Wine 225 

97. White Wine 226 

98. Hard Cider from Apples, Oranges, and other Fruits 226 

CHAPTER XXXII 

Recipes for Preservation of Vegetables by 
Salt or Fermentation 

99. Preservation of Vegetables by Dry Salt 227 

100. Preservation of Vegetables in Strong Brine 228 

101. Preservation of Cabbage by Fermentation (Sauerkraut) . . 228 

102. Preservation of String Beans, Beets, and Greens by Fer- 

mentation 229 

103. Preservation of Vegetables by Fermentation in Brine .... 229 

104. Dill Pickles 230 

CHAPTER XXXIII 

Recipes for Pickles and Relishes 

105. Cucumber Pickles in Vinegar 231 

106. Onion, Green Tomato, and Cauliflower Pickles in Vinegar 231 

107. Sweet Vegetable Pickles 232 

108. Sweet Fruit Pickles 232 

109. Sweet Pickled Watermelon Rind 233 

110. Spiced Green Tomatoes 233 

111. Chow Chow 233 

112. Mustard Pickles 234 

113. Piccalilli 235 

114. Chili Sauce 235 

115. Dixie Relish 236 

116. Chutney 237 

117. Stuffed Pickled Sweet Peppers 237 



xxii CONTENTS 

• PAGE 

118. Green Tomato Pickle 238 

119. Tomato Ketchup 238 

120. Tomato Paste 239 

121. Ripe Olive Pickles 240 

122. Green Olive Pickles 241 

123. Ripe Olive Paste 242 

124. Ripe Olives Cured by the Salt Process 242 

125. Dessicated Olives 242 

CHAPTER XXXIV 

Recipes for the Home Preservation of Meats and Eggs 

126. Plain Salt Pork 243 

127. Corned Beef 244 

128. Sugar Curing Hams and Bacon for Smoking 245 

129. Dry Curing of Pork for Smoking 245 

130. Salting Beef for Drying 246 

131. Preservation of Fish by Salting 246 

132. Home Made Smoke House 247 

133. Fuel for Smoking 248 

134. Ham and Bacon 248 

135. Dried Smoked Beef 248 

136. Smoking Large Fish 248 

137. Smoking Small Fish 249 

138. Drying Fish 249 

139. Dried Beef and Venison (" Jerkey") 250 

140. Preservation of Eggs in Water Glass 250 

141. Preservation of Eggs in Lime and Salt 250 

CHAPTER XXXV 
Recipes for Dairy Products 

142. Gouda Cheese 251 

143. Cottage Cheese 254 

144. The Preservation of Butter by Salt 255 

Appendix 257 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

1. Preparing Fruit for Canning 22 

2. Types of Knives for Preparation of Fruit 24 

3. Cherry Pitter for Home Use . 25 

4. Apple Peeling Machine for Home Use 26 

5. Common Types of Jars 27 

6. Common Types of Cans for Home Canning 27 

7. Useful Utensils in Canning 28 

8. Blanching and Chilling Vegetables before Canning 30 

9. Filling Jars with Heated Fruit 31 

10. Filling Jars with Hot Brine or Sirup before Lowering Them 

into Sterilizer 32 

11. Gasoline Fire Pot for Heating Soldering Irons 33 

12. View in Modern Cannery Sealing Cans 35 

13. Hand Power Capping Machine for Sanitary Cans 38 

14. A Convenient Form of Washboiler Sterilizer 41 

15. Washboiler Sterilizer with Cover Made Tight by Use of a 

Cloth 43 

16. Closing Jars after Sterilizing 46 

17. Positions of Clamp on Glass Top Jar before and after 

Sterilizing 47 

18. Home Size Steam Pressure Sterilizer 48 

19. Normal and Spoiled Cans of Food 58 

20. Small Crusher for Home Use 61 

21. Pressing Crushed Fruit 62 

22. Small Crusher and Press for Farm Use 63 

23. Straining Juice after Pressing 64 

24. Capping Bottles with Small Hand Power Crown Capper. . . 67 

25. Sterilizing Bottles of Juice 68 

26. Wooden Vat with Steam Coil for Use in Sterilizing Bottles 

of Juice or Cans of Food 69 

27. Plan for Arrangement of Steam Coil of Figure 26 69 

28. Dipping Ends of Bottles in Melted Paraffin to Seal Corks 

after Pasteurizing 70 

xxiii 



xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

29. Apparatus for Sun Evaporation of Fruit Juices 73 

30. The Pectin Test 76 

31. The Thermometer Test for Jellies 78 

32. The Baume Hydrometer for Jelly Test 82 

33. Marmalade Slicer 86 

34. Placing Candied Fruits on Wire Screen to Drain 91 

35. Knocking Ripe Prunes from Trees for Drying 94 

36. Dipping Prunes and White Grapes in Boiling 3^% Lye Solu- 

tion before Drying 96 

37. Upper View. Fruit Dipper for Prunes 97 

Lower View. Stacking Fruit that is Nearly Dry 97 

38. Views of Drying Yards in California 98 

39. Small Fruit Sulphuring Box for Home Use 100 

40. Sulphuring Fruit on a Large Scale in California 101 

41. Muscat Grapes Drying on Trays in the Vineyard 102 

42. Sorting Dried Prunes 103 

43. Pomona Vegetable Peeler 104 

44. A Home Made Dryer for Use above the Kitchen Stove. . . . 105 

45. Small Home Made Cabinet Dryer 106 

46. Galvanized Iron Fruit and Vegetable Dryer for Farm Use. 107 

47. Packing of Dried Vegetables in Insect-Proof Containers. . . 114 

48. Fermenting Vats Used in Large Scale Manufacture of Vine- 

gar from Fruits 117 

49. Barrel Arranged for Vinegar Making 121 

50. Plan for Upright Vinegar Generator for Farm Use 122 

51. Leo Acid Tester for Testing Strength of Vinegar 124 

52. Barrel or Other Container Arranged for Fermentation of 

Vegetables 133 

53. Preserving Vegetables by Salting 134 

54. Vats of Olives being Exposed to Air to Color Them during 

Pickling Process 137 

55. Interior of Large Olive Pickling Plant 138 

56. Home-Made Smoke House 146 

57. Capping and Tipping a Solder Top Can 160 

58. Horse Power Sorghum or Cane Mill 195 

59. Evaporating Pan for Sorghumand Other Sirups 196 

60. Apple Peeler for Farm Use 212 

61. Hand Power Vegetable Slicer 220 



PART I 
THEORY OF FOOD PRESERVATION 



HOME AND FARM FOOD 
PRESERVATION 

CHAPTER I 
WHY FOOD SPOILS 

Food spoils because of the growth and destructive 
action of microscopic living organisms. They are com- 
monly termed " germs." The various methods of food 
preservation are practically all based upon processes 
that destroy these organisms or prevent their growth 
and activity. Because they are microscopic and because 
they are living organisms, we shall for convenience call 
them " microorganisms." 

1. Molds. The molding of food is a common phenom- 
enon. In some cases the food is completely spoiled; in 
others, the decomposition is not sufficient to make the 
product inedible; and in a few products, the growth of 
certain molds is desirable. 

The most prevalent mold and the one causing the most 
damage is the " biue mold," otherwise known as " Peni- 
cillium expansum." It first appears usually as a white 
cottony growth on fruits, cheese, cured meats, vegetables, 
jellies, wine tanks, leather left in dark closets, and on 
other articles favorable to its growth. This cottony 
growth of mold threads is known as a " mycelium." 
Later, the mold becomes " powdery " in appearance 
and green or blue in color. This change in color is due to 
the formation of billions of microscopic cells or " spores." 
The spores are very light and easily detached. They 
are carried by the air or other agencies from place to 

3 



4 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

place. They are floating in the air at all times and 
places and are present on the surfaces of all fresh foods. 
They are capable of sprouting when conditions become 
favorable. A large growth may start from a single cell 
or spore. 

Fruits whose skins become broken in transit suffer 
badly from this mold and acquire a moldy taste and 
odor. In some such cases the growth will not be ap- 
parent because the mold threads are growing in the 
pulp or juice of the fruit. 

The surface of jellies may become overgrown by this 
organism and the upper portion of the jelly completely 
spoiled. Leaky jars of fruit may mold from the growth 
of penicillium spores gaining entrance through the leaks. 
Bacon and cheese may develop green spots of this mold 
on the surface and still not be spoiled if the mold is re- 
moved in time. The inside of wine or vinegar barrels 
may be completely spoiled where this mold is allowed to 
develop through improper care of the barrels. 

The blue mold can be controlled, but great care must 
be taken if it is to be completely eliminated. Its spores 
are killed by heating to 180° F. and growth is prevented 
by many chemicals. 

" Black Mold," otherwise known as " Aspergillus 
nigcr," often occurs on fruits that have become moist 
on the surface or broken; or it may occur on other 
products occasionally. It does not produce a moldy 
taste or odor; it is much less prevalent, and is easier to 
control than is the blue mold. 

" Pin Mold," or " Gray Mold," or " Bread Mold," 
usually causes the molding of bread stored in a moist 
place. It also occurs frequently on fruits and may ap- 
pear as " whiskers " on peaches, grapes, and other fruits, 
shipped long distances in boxes. It is not especially 
important in food preservation. It is known botanically 
as Mucor. 



WHY FOOD SPOILS 5 

There are hundreds of other forms of molds but the 
above forms are by far the most common on food 
products. 

Molds are not always deleterious in their action. 
Camembert, Rocquefort, and some other fancy cheeses 
owe their distinctive quality to the growth of special 
forms of Penicillium molds. A form of Aspergillus 
mold, known as Aspergillus oryzae, is used extensively 
in Japan in making " Saki," Japanese beer. A Mucor 
mold is used frequently in distilleries in the production 
of alcohol from cereals. 

In general, molds are of interest in food preservation 
because of their capacity for spoiling food, their uni- 
versal occurrence on food products, and the difficulty 
in killing their spores by heat or controlling their growth 
in other ways. 

2. Yeasts. When a fruit juice is allowed to stand a 
few days it undergoes fermentation. The sugar is de- 
stroyed and alcohol and carbonic acid gas are formed. 
This change is brought about by another group of mi- 
croscopic organisms, known as yeasts. Yeasts are used 
in bread making, vinegar manufacture, and in the pro- 
duction of various fermented beverages. 

Unlike molds, they do not form a mycelium, i. e., a 
thread-like growth, but only develop as microscopic 
cells of various forms. They appear in fermented liquids 
as a white sediment or a cloudy growth throughout the 
liquid. 

They are universally present in the air, on the surfaces 
of fruits, vegetables, and of tables, knives, etc., and 
are capable of growing in and spoiling sugary liquids, 
crushed fruits, jellies that do not have sufficient sugar, 
and in other products containing from one to 65% sugar. 
More sugar than 65% prevents their growth. 

Jars and cans of fruit that become leaky after steriliza- 
tion become infected with yeast cells carried in by air 



6 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

passing into the containers. Growth and fermentation 
take place and the pressure of the carbonic acid formed 
by the yeast causes the container to swell or burst. 
Much canned fruit is lost in this way. The housewife 
usually attributes the loss to the entrance of air. It is 
in reality caused by yeast gaining entrance with the 
air; air alone would be incapable of causing fermen- 
tation. 

Yeasts are easily killed by heat, a temperature of 
60° C. or 140° F. being sufficient, and in general, yeasts 
are more easily controlled than molds. Conditions that 
will eliminate molds will also remove yeasts. 

Yeasts cause the " souring," " working," or ferment- 
ing of spoiled jars or cans of fruit, bottles of fruit juices, 
or glasses of jelly. They are therefore of much impor- 
tance in the preservation of fruit products. 

They are necessary in the manufacture of all fermented 
beverages, denatured alcohol, vinegar, and yeast-risen 
bread. Yeasts are the most useful of all the micro- 
organisms met with in food preservation. 

3. Bacteria. Milk sours on standing; meat and many 
cooked vegetables putrefy unless spoiling is prevented; 
dill pickles and sauerkraut undergo certain characteristic 
changes. These changes are wholly, or in most part, 
brought about by bacteria. They comprise the third 
main group of " germs " or microorganisms. Like the 
other two groups they are universally distributed. Bac- 
teria are, as a rule, smaller than yeasts and differ from 
them in their method of reproduction. Yeasts reproduce 
by budding and bacteria by splitting in two, i. e., by " fis- 
sion." Bacteria prefer nitrogenous substances of low 
acid content, such as milk, meat, peas, and beans, and 
do not grow readily on fruits or acid vegetables. Molds 
and yeasts prefer sugary, acid materials. 

Yeast and mold spores are easily killed by tempera- 
tures below 212° F. Many bacterial spores survive tern- 



WHY FOOD SPOILS 7 

peratures above 212° F., the boiling point of water. 
For this reason, many foods containing such spores are 
exceedingly difficult to sterilize by heat. This does not 
apply to foods high in acid because these bacteria can 
not grow readily in the presence of much acid and are 
more easily killed in acid foods. 

Yeasts and molds produce relatively harmless com- 
pounds in food products. Bacteria on the other hand 
may produce in canned vegetables, in meats, and in 
cheese, extremely poisonous compounds. These are the 
ptomaines and botulinus poison. (See paragraph 25, 
Part II, on " Spoiling of Canned Foods.") It is therefore 
necessary to be sure that such products as canned peas, 
beans, corn, and meats, are thoroughly sterilized, in 
order that poisoning will not occur. 

Several forms of bacteria are extremely useful in food 
preservation and food manufacture. The two most 
important are vinegar bacteria, necessary in making 
vinegar, and lactic acid bacteria, essential in the manu- 
facture and preservation of sauerkraut, pickled green 
olives, silage, and cheese. " Vinegar Mother " is a 
growth of vinegar bacteria; the sour taste of sauerkraut 
and sour milk is brought about by lactic acid formed 
by lactic acid bacteria. 

4. Spoiling of Foods by Chemical and Physical 
Changes. Some food products decompose without the 
action of organisms. Edible fats and oils become rancid 
through the action of the oxygen of the air. Meats 
are sometimes practically spoiled by the use of too 
much salt in salt curing. Dried fruits may be greatly 
injured by leaving them too long in the sun on trays. 
Canned goods sometimes act upon the tin of the 
cans to such an extent that they become poisonous or 
inedible. 

Practically all food products undergo slow changes 
through drying or oxidation when left exposed to the 



8 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

air. Even cereals deteriorate with age in bins, eleva- 
tors, etc. 

Changes of this sort are as a rule slower and more 
easily controlled than bacterial changes. It is usually 
only necessary to exclude moisture or air or control the 
temperature. 



CHAPTER II 
WAYS OF PREVENTING SPOILING 

A. Temporary Prevention of Spoiling 

It is often desirable to preserve foods for a relatively 
short time only. In such cases methods are usually em- 
ployed, which will alter the original qualities of the 
product as little as possible. The methods will vary 
with the character of the food and other conditions. 

5. Asepsis. Milk, fresh fruit juices and the surfaces 
of fruits, vegetables, meats, and other food products 
contain great numbers of microorganisms capable of 
causing spoiling. By handling these products in a 
careful and cleanly way, by using containers that are 
clean and preferably sterilized by heat, and by washing 
or otherwise cleansing certain products of adhering 
dust, etc., the molds, yeasts, and bacteria will be kept 
down to small numbers, and their multiplication will be 
hindered. Often such treatment will greatly prolong 
the keeping of food products, especially of fresh fruits 
and vegetables. Cleanliness and care in handling in 
order that excessive contamination by " germs " will 
be prevented is termed " asepsis." The extreme care 
taken in modern certified dairies in the production of 
certified milk is one of the best examples of the applica- 
tion of asepsis in the handling of a food product. 

6. Cold Storage. The organisms that cause spoiling, 
grow most rapidly and are most active at warm tempera- 
tures. At temperatures near the freezing point their 
growth is almost completely stopped. The storage of 
eggs, meats, and fruits at low temperatures has become 

9 



10 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

an enormous industry. It has made these foods avail- 
able over a longer period of the year than would other- 
wise be possible. Fresh meat is exported in great quan- 
tities from South America, Australia, and the United 
States in ships equipped with cold storage facilities. 

Cold storage is principally an industrial undertaking 
but is used extensively in a small way by housewives 
and farmers in the use of the various forms of household 
ice chests and in the winter storage of vegetables on 
farms. Meat is often allowed to freeze in the winter air 
and is kept in a cold place till needed. 

In all cases the principle involved is the same; namely, 
reducing the activity of the microorganisms of spoiling 
by a reduction of temperature. Lowering of tempera- 
ture also slows up deleterious chemical changes such as 
the rancidifying of fats, and oils, and the deterioration 
of cereals. 

7. Exclusion of Moisture. Moisture is necessary to 
the growth of microscopic organisms. Fruits often 
spoil during shipment because of the collection on their 
surfaces of moisture, in which molds develop. Perfectly 
dry surfaces will not support mold or other " germ " 
growth. For this reason, dried fruits, meats, dried vege- 
tables, and cereals should be stored in a dry atmosphere. 
Cars for the shipment of fresh fruits are well ventilated 
in order that moisture in excessive amounts will not 
collect on the fruit, and permit growth of mold. The 
same principle applies to the storing of bread, meats, 
cereals, flour and many other foods. As in the ship- 
ment of fruit or the keeping of bread, exclusion of surface 
moisture involves ventilation; that is, a supply of cir- 
culating air to carry away any moisture given off by the 
food product. 

8. Use of Mild Antiseptics. Food products may often 
be preserved a short time by the use of small amounts of 
antiseptics. These inhibit, that is, decrease or prevent 



WAYS OF PREVENTING SPOILING 11 

the activity of the organisms of spoiling but do not 
destroy them. For example, meat may be kept by the 
addition of salt. If small amounts are used, the preserva- 
tion will be temporary; if large quantities are added, the 
meat will be permanently preserved. The same applies 
to butter preserved with salt. Sugar in amounts less 
than 65% exerts a temporary preservative effect. Small 
amounts of sodium benzoate are used in ketchups, etc., 
as a means of temporary preservation. Milk is some- 
times illegally preserved temporarily by the addition of 
formaldehyde or borax in small amounts. These are 
examples of the use of various antiseptics as a means of 
temporary preservation. 

9. Pasteurization as a Means of Temporary Preserva- 
tion. By pasteurization is meant heating a food product 
to a temperature which kills most of the organisms pres- 
ent, but does not destroy all. It also greatly weakens 
those not killed and retards their normal development. 
The most familiar example of this method is in the pas- 
teurization of milk. The temperature used kills typhoid 
and tuberculosis bacteria, but does not destroy certain 
spore-bearing bacteria. The milk so treated will usually 
be free from bacteria capable of producing serious dis- 
eases but will not keep permanently, because the spores 
of the resistant bacteria will finally develop and cause 
spoiling. Milk pasteurization for market dairy milk is 
compulsory in many cities and states. Many other food 
products are heated to keep them for a few days; for 
example, meats, cooked vegetables, jams, etc., are often 
so treated by simply heating them in an open pot. This 
preserves them for several days. Pasteurization may, 
then, be taken to mean the heating of a food product to 
a sufficiently high temperature to kill many of the micro- 
organisms, but not all that are present, and results in 
temporary preservation only. It is usually carried out 
at temperatures below 212° F., the boiling point of water. 



12 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

The term " pasteurization " is frequently applied to 
the sterilization of fruit juices or other products at tem- 
peratures below 212° F. In most of these cases, how- 
ever, the products are actually sterilized; that is, all 
living organisms are killed. Sterilization thus differs 
from pasteurization in that sterilization is complete 
destruction of all life present and pasteurization is only 
destruction of part of the organisms present. 

10. Exclusion of Air. The keeping qualities of some 
food products are enhanced if air is effectively excluded. 
This is true of pickles, such as dill pickles, and green olive 
pickles; also of butter, cheese, olive oil, wine, and vinegar. 
In some cases the effect is due to the exclusion of or- 
ganisms, e. g., eggs sealed with water glass or paraffin; 
in others, to the exclusion of oxygen necessary to the 
growth of molds or bacteria that would destroy such foods 
as pickles and wine, and in other cases to the exclusion of 
oxygen essential to the deleterious chemical changes that 
take place in such food products as olive oil and other 
vegetable and animal oils and fats. 

The popular idea that air itself causes the spoiling of 
canned fruits, vegetables, and various other canned 
products by its entrance through leaks is erroneous. 
This can be proven by sterilizing food products in bottles 
plugged with cotton. Air can go in but " germs " are 
retained on the cotton. The sterilized product will keep 
indefinitely under these conditions. It is the growth of 
molds, yeasts, and bacteria gaining entrance with the 
air that causes spoiling. 

B. Permanent Prevention of Spoiling 

There are several important principles applied in the 
permanent preservation of food products. Like methods 
of temporary preservation, the process must be adapted 
to the product and the existing conditions. In the fol- 



WAYS OF PREVENTING SPOILING 13 

lowing paragraphs the most important principles are 
discussed. 

11. Preservation by Sterilization by Heat. Steriliza- 
tion by heat means complete destruction of all forms of 
life in the product sterilized. If the sterilized material 
is to be kept for any appreciable length of time, steriliza- 
tion must be accompanied by sealing the product in 
air-tight containers. The exclusion of air is necessary 
in order that microorganisms shall not gain entrance 
to the food. 

The temperature necessary for sterilization will de- 
pend almost entirely upon the composition of the food. 
Foods high in acid are very easily sterilized; those low 
in acid are difficult to sterilize. This rule holds, ap- 
parently without exception. Meats, milk, and vege- 
tables of low acidity, such as peas, corn, pumpkin, and 
beans are exceedingly difficult to sterilize by heat. Acid 
products, such as most fruits and tomatoes, are easily 
sterilized. On all of these products are found numbers 
of spore bearing bacteria of great resistance to heat; but 
apparently in the presence of acid they are easily killed 
or are not able to develop. Regardless of which theory 
is true, it remains a fact that acidity very positively 
affects sterilizing temperatures. If products low in 
acid are acidified with some harmless acid substance 
such as lemon juice or vinegar, they will become rela- 
tively easy to sterilize. This principle is made use of in 
the " lemon juice method " described later. 

Fruit juices and most fruits are readily sterilized by 
a few minutes' heating to 165° F. ; pickled olives must be 
heated a short time at 212° F., the boiling point of water; 
string beans require two hours or longer at 212° F.; 
corn, three hours or longer at 212° F.; and meats, four 
hours or longer at 212° F. There is thus a gradation in 
the length of heating and the temperature necessary for 
complete sterilization. 



14 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

Sterilization in boiling water at 212° F. is made more 
effective if the time of sterilization is broken up into two 
or three periods separated by intervals of 24 hours. 
For example, corn or meat may be readily sterilized by 
heating in cans or jars in boiling water for one hour on 
each of three successive days. Between the first and 
second heating, most of the spores that have survived 
the first heating will germinate because of the softening 
effect of the heat. These will be very tender and will 
be easily killed when the second heating occurs. The 
third heating will kill all the spores left from the second 
heating. This method is known as " intermittent 
sterilization," or the " three-day method." It is well 
adapted to the household sterilization of meats and 
certain vegetables. Its application is described later. 

Steam confined in a closed space and heated will reach 
temperatures above 212°. The spores of bacteria, in or 
on products difficult to sterilize, will be quickly killed if 
the materials are confined in a steam retort and heated 
under steam pressure of several pounds per square inch. 
This method is used to the exclusion of all others in 
commercial canneries for the sterilization of such ma- 
terials as peas, beans, corn, meats, and milk. It requires 
factory-made equipment, but simple inexpensive steam 
pressure sterilizers for home use are available. The 
home application of steam pressure sterilization will be 
discussed later. 

12. Preservation by Use of Antiseptics. Salt, sugar, 
vinegar acid, and lactic acid are used commonly as pre- 
servatives for foods and prevent spoiling by their poi- 
sonous action upon microorganisms. These are all harm- 
less antiseptics. Various chemicals are also used as food 
preservatives but most of them are considered harmful 
to health. Examples are benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, 
salicylic acid, formaldehyde, sulphurous acid, and sodium 
fluoride. 



WAYS OF PREVENTING SPOILING 15 

Sugar will prevent spoiling if it is present to the ex- 
tent of 65%. Sirups, honey, jellies, candies, and marma- 
lades do not spoil because they contain enough sugar to 
prevent molding or fermentation. 

Salt must usually be present to the extent of at least 
15% to act as a permanent preservative. An apparent 
exception would appear to be butter, where 5% is suf- 
ficient. But in this case, the real preservative effect 
of the salt takes place in the buttermilk and brine in 
the butter because the butter fat itself is inert and does 
not dissolve the salt. The liquid portion of the butter 
constitutes only 15% or less of the butter. Therefore, 
5% of salt calculated on the weight of the butter would 
give a 30% solution in the liquid part of the butter. The 
same principle applies to other salted products. It is 
the salt in solution that exercises an antiseptic effect in 
the preservation of salted meats and salted vegetables. 

Vinegar acid is a more effective antiseptic than salt 
or sugar. For most food products 3% acetic acid is 
sufficient to preserve them. Vinegar is used in the pres- 
ervation of many forms of pickles. 

Benzoate of soda is the most common and least harm- 
ful chemical preservative used. It is allowed by pure 
food laws in quantities up to one-tenth of 1%. It is 
used for the preservation of sirups and fruit preserves 
used in soda fountains and for the preservation of 
ketchup. 

Sulphurous acid from the fumes of burning sulphur is 
allowed in small quantities in food products. Other 
chemical preservatives are prohibited by law and are 
therefore of little interest to the housewife and farmer. 
Sulphurous acid from burning sulphur is used in fruit 
drying to prevent darkening. Its use for this purpose is 
universal and is permitted by pure food laws. It is 
doubtful, however, whether the amount used is suffi- 
cient to act as a permanent preservative. 



16 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

13. Preservation by Drying. Microorganisms that 
cause spoiling require a certain minimum amount of 
moisture for growth. If the moisture falls below this 
minimum in a food product the food will not spoil by 
molding, fermentation, or putrefaction. This principle 
is made use of in the drying of fruits, vegetables, and 
meats, and making dessicated liquids, such as dessicated 
milk, dried coffee extract, etc. 

The amount of evaporation necessary will depend upon 
the composition of the food. Foods impregnated with 
salt need not be dried so much as those not containing 
salt, because the salt exerts an antiseptic effect in addi- 
tion to the preservative effect of the drying. The same 
applies to smoked meats. Fruits and vegetables must 
be dried to the point where the juice or sap in the dried 
product contains more than 65% sugar, or its equivalent 
in other soluble compounds. It is actually the high con- 
centration of sugar in these cases that exerts the pre- 
servative action. This point will be reached for prunes 
and figs when 23^ pounds have been dried to 1 pound; 
for apricots, peaches, and pears, when about 5 or 6 
pounds have been dried to 1 ; for grapes, about 4 pounds 
to 1; for beets, about 7 to 1; for turnips, carrots, and 
tomatoes, about 14 to 1; and for onions, about 16 to 1. 
The ratio will depend upon the original water content 
of the product dried. This varies with the locality, 
method of growing, degree of ripeness, and other con- 
ditions. 

In practice the dried products are not dried by de- 
termining the loss in weight, but they are dried until the 
texture is attained at which experience has shown that 
the product will keep. 

14. Preservation by Smoking. Meats are smoked to 
impart an agreeable flavor and to preserve them. The 
preservative action is brought about principally by the 
antiseptic effect of compounds of a creosotic nature 



WAYS OF PREVENTING SPOILING 17 

existing in the smoke, but is also due in part to the 
drying effect of the heat accompanying the smoking 
process. 

15. Preservation by Fermentation. Microorganisms 
usually cause spoiling, but under certain conditions and 
with certain food products, their activity can be utilized 
as a means of food preservation. Preservation of foods 
in this manner may be accomplished by the action of a 
number of different microorganisms, which carry on 
various sorts of changes in the food product. These 
changes are designated as fermentations, the term in- 
cluding alcoholic fermentation, vinegar fermentation, 
and lactic acid fermentation. 

Fruit juices may be changed to wines and hard ciders 
by yeast fermentation. If air is excluded the fermented 
products will not spoil, because of the preservative effect 
of the alcohol, and also because the yeast has destroyed 
the sugar and other food compounds upon which other 
organisms might develop. 

Vinegar is formed by acetic acid fermentation of al- 
coholic liquids. This fermentation is carried on by 
vinegar bacteria. The acetic acid formed will preserve 
the liquid itself, or fruits, vegetables, and meats stored 
in the liquid, provided air is excluded after vinegar 
fermentation is over. The acetic acid of the vinegar is 
the preservative agent. 

Lactic acid fermentation occurs in the manufacture 
of sauerkraut, fermented string beans, and similar fer- 
mented vegetables. It is carried out by lactic acid bac- 
teria, which form lactic acid from the sugar of the vege- 
tables. Vegetables so fermented will keep indefinitely 
after lactic fermentation is over, provided air is excluded. 
Silage owes its keeping qualities largely to lactic acid 
formed by lactic acid fermentation in the silo. 

16. Exclusion of Air. Certain food products are 
spoiled by the action of the oxygen of the air. Oils and 



18 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

fats are of this type. Such products will not spoil if air 
is excluded. 

Other food products are spoiled by the combined ac- 
tion of various microorganisms and the air. Wine, 
eggs, and vinegar belong to this class. If eggs are sealed 
with water glass they will keep for a year or longer. If 
wine and vinegar are sealed in completely filled bottles 
they will keep for scores of years. Therefore, the simple 
exclusion of air may be termed a means of permanently 
preserving some food products. 



PART II 
METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION 



CHAPTER III 
CANNING FRUITS 

Fruit canning is one of the most important of the food 
preservation industries. It is no longer a by-product in- 
dustry, but is now a primary industry for which enormous 
quantities of fruit are grown annually. 

In addition to the fruit canned commercially, many 
millions of cans and jars are put up each year by house- 
wives in the kitchen or by families who use small scale 
canning outfits. It is for those engaged in canning for 
home use or in a small way for local sale that the follow- 
ing discussion is intended, although the principles in- 
volved will be of interest to commercial fruit canners. 

The various steps in the canning process have been 
taken up in the order in which they occur in practice and 
each is discussed separately. For convenience of refer- 
ence, the various topics taken up have been numbered 
serially. The material in this chapter is general and 
aims to give the principles of canning and descriptions of 
apparatus used rather than specific directions or recipes. 
Recipes will be found in Part III, Recipes 1-19, in- 
clusive. 

1. Picking. Fruits for canning should be prime ripe; 
not over-ripe and soft, or too green. An exception to this 
rule is the pear. Pears should be picked when full size, 
but still green and should then be ripened in the box 
because tree ripened pears lack flavor and are coarse in 
texture. Under-ripe apricots remain astringent and 
tasteless regardless of the amount of cooking or sugar 
used. 

The fruit should be handled carefully to prevent 

21 





Mm'" ' 


is 


fl 



CANNING FRUITS 23 

bruising. Berries and soft fruit should be kept in shallow 
boxes until canned. 

The fruit should be taken to the canning room as soon 
as picked. In most fruits, there is a rapid deterioration 
both in texture and flavor after picking. 

2. Grading and Sorting. The appearance of the canned 
fruit is greatly improved by sorting the fruit according 
to appearance and grading for size. In home canning 
all grading can be done by hand and at the operator's 
discretion. Where large quantities of fruit are to be 
graded for size, the grading for size is done by mechanical 
graders that can be adjusted to different varieties of 
fruit. 

In home or small scale canning three grades will 
usually be sufficient: " Fancy," consisting of the finest 
and largest fruit; " Standard," medium sized fruit, and 
this grade may also include fruit that is more or less 
imperfect in appearance but of good size; " Pie Fruit," 
soft, small, and badly blemished fruit. 

Grading is highly desirable if the fruit is canned for 
sale. 

3. Peeling, Pitting, Coring and Cutting. Large fruits 
for home canning are peeled, usually by hand with a 
knife, although small hand power peelers for apples and 
peaches are available. The Pomona and similar types of 
peeling knives fitted with a guard will tend to prevent 
waste of fruit in peeling (Fig. 2). 

Peaches and apricots are peeled commercially by im- 
mersing them in a boiling 10% solution of soda lye. 
The method is rather difficult to use in the house- 
hold. A modification of this method of peeling can be 
used on a small scale as follows : Make a solution of three- 
fourths of a pound of soda lye per gallon of water. Use an 
agateware or iron pot; never aluminum. Heat to boiling. 
Immerse the fruit in a wire basket in the hot lye long 
enough (about 20 to 30 seconds), to soften the skin. 



24 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

Plunge fruit into large pot of cold water and rub off skins 
with the hands. Wash off all trace of lye in another pot of 
water. Vigorous washing will be necessary to remove the 
last traces of lye from the fruit. 

Cherries are often pitted. Small hand pitters can be 
bought at any good hardware store for fifty cents to a 




ft 



D 



Fig. 2. Types of Knives for Preparation of Fruit. A. Pomona peel- 
ing knife with guard to regulate thickness of peelings. B. Peach 
pitting spoon. C. Pear coring knife. D. Fruit cutting knife. 

dollar. These same pitters can also be used for olives. 
The pitters consist of a small plunger with a cross-shaped 
point that forces out the pit. 

A convenient cutting knife for halving peaches, pears, 
etc., is shown in the accompanying figure. 

The pits of clingstone peaches must be removed with a 
special pitting knife or " spoon." The flesh is first cut 
along the line of suture with a cutting knife. The pitting 



CANNING FRUITS 



25 



spoon is then forced into the peach at the stem end and is 
manipulated so that the pit is cut from the flesh with as 
little loss as possible of flesh adhering to the pit. The 
fruit is then cut in half and is separated from the pit. 
Commercially, the halves are not peeled before pitting and 
the peeling is done later in a lye vat; in the household, it is 
advisable to peel cling peaches 
by hand before pitting. 

Pears are hand peeled ; they 
are cut in half and the core 
removed with the coring knife 
shown in Figure 2-C. 

4. Jars. Because they can 
be used repeatedly from year 
to year, jars are more satis- 
factory than cans for putting 
up fruits in the household. 
There are numerous types 
and sizes of glass jars. Most 
of these give satisfaction if 
used properly. Their choice 
is largely a matter of personal 
preference. 

The various brands of jars that are equipped with glass 
tops, rubbers, and wire clamps are very satisfactory be- 
cause of their durability, their simplicity, wide openings 
for filling, convenience in sterilizing, and because of the 
fact that no metal comes in contact with the food and it is 
not necessary to replace the caps, as is often the case with 
some other types of jars. The various modifications of 
the Economy jar are excellent, if their use is well under- 
stood. They are sealed with a lacquered metal cap 
carrying a composition which melts during sterilization 
and hardens to form an air-tight seal as the jars cool. The 
caps can be used only once. 

The ordinary Ball Mason jar is probably the most 




Fig. 3. Cherry Pitter for Home 
Use. (Courtesy of Berger 
and Carter Company, San 
Francisco, California.) 



26 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

commonly used of all jars. The lacquered metal caps are 
superior to the old style porcelain and zinc cap. This 
latter style corrodes in time and becomes leaky. The 
main objection to the Mason jar is the narrowness of the 
jar mouth. A wide mouth Mason is now on the market 
but the caps are very difficult to remove and must usually 



Fig. 4. Apple 'Peeling Machine for Home Use. 
(Courtesy of Berger and Carter Company, 
San Francisco, California.) 

be replaced each year. The new Mason with the so- 
called " vacuum seal " is excellent. 

More important than the jar is the rubber. Select 
rubbers of the best material. Before buying, test them 
by stretching them severely. Brittle rubbers will not 
stand processing; they will often spread and cause leaks 
that result in spoiling of the contents of the jar. Rubbers 
of good elasticity will often last two seasons. It is, how- 
ever, a good plan to buy new rubbers each season rather 
than to risk spoiling through the use of old rubbers. It is 
sometimes possible to use two old rubbers to each jar with 
good results. 

3. Wax Top Cans. Three types of cans are used in 



CANNING FRUITS 



27 




abode 
Fig. 5. Common Types of Jars, a, Class top with removable clamp. 

b, Glass top with fixed wire clamp. (Atlas, E. Z. seal, etc.) 

c, Metal cap, composition seal. (Economy, etc.) d, Metal cap, 
rubber seal, wide mouth. (Golden State, Mason, etc.) e, Or- 
dinary Ball Mason. 

home and farm canning. These are the wax top can, the 
solder top can, and the open top or Sanitary can. 

The wax top can is fitted with a groove around the 
edge of the top. The lid fits into this and the seal is made 
after sterilization by pouring hot sealing wax to fill the 
groove or by filling the groove with a specially prepared 
waxed string. The wax top cans are excellent for fruits 




a o c d e / 

Fig. 6. Common Types of Cans for Home Canning. 



g 



a, Solder top 

can No. 10 size, b, Solder top can No. 3 size, c, Solder top can 
No. 2 size, d, Solder top can No. 1 tall size, e, Solder top can 
No. 2 l A tall square asparagus. /, Solder top can, flat asparagus. 
g, Wax top can. 



28 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

but are not very satisfactory for vegetables or meats, be- 
cause of the difficulty in sealing the cans while still 
boiling hot. It is possible to permit the cans to cool 
slightly before sealing when used for fruit and then no 
difficulty is met with in applying the wax. Advantages 
of the wax top can are its wide opening through which 
large fruits and whole tomatoes may be filled into the 
can and the fact that the cans may with care be used 




Fig. 7. Useful Utensils in Canning, a, Measuring 
glass, 8 ounces capacity, b, Half gallon measure, 
c, Household scale. 

several seasons. The sealing is very simple and requires 
no special equipment or experience. 

6. Solder Top Cans. Solder top cans are closed with 
solder. The cap of the solder top can is soldered on with 
a special soldering steel after the can is filled. It is sealed 
by closing a small vent hole in the center of the can with 
a drop of solder. Two styles of caps may be obtained. 
The solder hemmed cap has a ring of solder attached. 



CANNING FRUITS 29 

The lid is soldered to the can by simply melting this ring 
of solder. The plain caps have no hem of solder and 
solder must be melted against the capping steel. This 
is wasteful of time and solder. Solder hemmed cap 
should be used if they can possibly be procured. The 
sealing of solder top cans is described in a recipe and 
illustrated in Fig. 56. 

7. Cooking the Fruit before Filling the Containers, or 
Hot Pack Method. There are two ways of canning 
fruits. These are known as the " cold pack " and the 
" hot pack " methods, respectively. In the cold pack 
method the fruit is packed into the jars or cans immedi- 
ately after peeling, pitting, etc. ; sirup or water is added 
and the fruit is cooked in the container. The fruit holds 
its shape and flavor well in this method but some fruits 
contract a great deal during sterilization, leaving the 
jar or can unfilled. In the hot pack method this contrac- 
tion takes place outside the container and more fruit 
can be packed into each can or jar. It is therefore a 
more economical method for home use. 

The fruit is prepared for the can by grading, peeling, 
coring, and pitting as the case requires. For sour fruits, 
one-half cup of sugar is added to each cup of fruit; for 
sweet fruits one-fourth cup; for pie fruit, no sugar. Just 
enough water is added to prevent scorching. The fruit 
is cooked over a slow fire with very little stirring until 
about half cooked. 

By means of a ladle and wide mouthed funnel it is 
poured into scalded jars or cans and sterilized. 

This method differs from the usual household " hot 
pack " method in which the fruit is completely cooked 
before placing it in the jars and in which no further cook- 
ing is given. The method of cooking completely before 
packing into cans or jars results in considerable break- 
ing of the fruit and gives a less attractive appearing 
product. 



30 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 




Fig. 8. Blanching and Chilling Vegetables before Canning. 

8. Filling Jars and Cans without Previous Cooking 
of the Fruit — Cold Pack Method. The fruit is prepared 
by peeling, coring, and pitting. It is packed into jars 
or cans without cooking. Hot sirup or water is added 
according to the grade of fruit. Sterilization and cook- 
ing are carried out in the cans or jars. This method is 
used exclusively by commercial canneries and is recom- 
mended strongly by the United States Department of 
Agriculture and the State Experiment Stations for use 
in the household. It is the least laborious of any method, 
but is not best for household use, because it does not 
utilize all of the space in the jars or cans, because con- 
siderable shrinkage occurs during sterilization. Partial 



32 HOME AND FARM FOOD' PRESERVATION 





*$ 


7- 




v 




• 




• v 




| '^'i^'J^ 




%t 1 




/,SL "^P^^^ 



Fig. 10. Filling Jars with Hot Brine or Sirup before Lowering Them 
into Sterilizer. 

cooking of the fruit before canning and sterilizing gives 
better results in the kitchen. 

9. Sanitary Cans. This is the type of can used in 
commercial canneries. No solder is used in sealing it. 
The cap is crimped or spun on by a special machine 
after the cans are filled. 

The commercial sanitary capping machine costs 



CANNING FRUITS 



33 



several hundred dollars or is rented by can companies 
for about fifty dollars per season. A motor or other 
mechanical source of power is necessary to run the 
capping machine. 




Fig. 11. Gasoline Fire Pot for Heating 
Soldering Irons. 



Small hand power capping machines costing from $13 
and upward are available. Considerable skill and ex- 
perience are required to make their use a success. With 
care and practice, however, satisfactory results can be 
attained. Directions for the use of these machines ac- 



34 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

company them. One form of hand power sanitary can 
capping machine is shown in Fig. 13. 

10. Sizes of Cans. Cans for food preservation vary 
in size from about one-fourth of a pint to five gallons. 
The sizes are usually designated by numbers rather than 
by " quarts," " pints," or " gallons." The contents of 
solder top cans and sanitary cans of the same numbers 
do not exactly correspond. The following table gives 
the contents of the various sizes of sanitary and solder 
top cans: 

Table 1. Dimensions and Capacities of Usual Cans x 



No. 


Sanitary 


Solder Top 


Height 


Diameter 


Capacity 


Height 


Diameter 


1 


4 in. 


23/ 8 in. 


11.6 oz. 


4 in. 


2ii/i6 in. 


2 


4V2 " 


33/8 " 


21.3 " 


49/16 " 


33/8 " 


2V2 


4"/l0 " 


4 " 


31.2 " 


43/ 4 " 


4 


3 


5 


41/1 " 


35.0 " 


4 7 /8 " 


43/i6 " 


10 


6^/16 " 


6 l/8 « 


107.0 " 


6 7 /8 " 


6V4 " 



1 From Circular 158, University of California Experiment Sta- 
tion, page 10. Dimensions in inches and capacities in fluid ounces. 

11. Net Weights that Cans for Market Must Contain. 
Cans or jars of fruit for market are packed according to 
weight. The net contents of the containers must be 
declared on the label and the contents must equal or 
exceed the amount declared. Commercial canneries 
provide counterpoised scales and fill the cans according 
to weight. During sterilization the weight will decrease 
because of the shrinkage of the fruit in the sirup. The 
label must therefore state the net contents based on 
weight of the fruit when the can is opened after steriliza- 
tion and this must be taken into account when filling 
the cans. 

Dr. A. W. Bitting has done a great deal of work upon 
the net contents of cans of fruit and has published tables 



CANNING FRUITS 



35 




Fig. 12. View in Modern Cannery. Sealing Cans. 

showing the relations between the fresh weight of fruit 
placed in the cans and the weight on the " cut out "; 
that is, when the can is opened several weeks or longer 
after sterilization. The weight immediately after steriliz- 
ation will not be the same as that several weeks after 
sterilization because of the equalization of sugar in the 
sirup and fruit that takes place slowly after sterilization. 
To determine the weight of fruit in a can, the can is 
opened and the contents are drained on a screen, 
or the top is cut and the fruit drained by inverting the 
can. 



36 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

The contents are stated either as net weight of fruit 
or as total weight of fruit and sirup. 

The following table gives the relation between the 
weight of fruit placed in the can before sterilization and 
that some time after sterilization, for various fruits and 
sizes of cans. The table is based on results published 
by Dr. A. W. Bitting in Department Bulletin 196 of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



Table 2. Relation Between Size of Can and Weights of Fruit 
Before and After Sterilization 



Fruit 


Size of 
Can 


Sugar 
Per Cent 
of Sirup 


Original. 
Weight 
of Fresh 

Fruit 

gms. 


Weight of Fruit 
After Steriliza- 
tion and Storage 




Grams 


Ounces 


Apricot 


2Vz 
2A 
2V 2 
2V 2 
2V 2 
2A 
2A 
2V 2 
2A 
2A 
2A 
VA 
2V 2 


Water 

20 

40 

60 
Water 

20 

40 

60 

30 

50 

50 

40 

30 


550 
550 
550 
550 
560 
560 
560 
560 
560 
550 
500 
560 
550 


545 
548 
556 
513 
535 
545 
558 
514 
544 
426 
357 
550 
518 


18 
18 


11 


18j/£ 


<( 


17 


Peach 


17% 


ii 


18K 


a 


18% 


ti 


17 


Pear 


18 


Loganberry 

Strawberry 

Plum 


14M 
12 

18% 


Royal Anne Cherries 


17M 



The weights of fresh fruit in Column 4 may be taken 
as the proper amount to weigh into the cans of this size 
before sealing, if the fruit is for market; because the 
figures were obtained upon fruits packed in the usual 
commercial way and represent average conditions. The 
net contents to be published on the label would be ob- 
tained from Column 5. Five hundred and fifty grams 



CANNING FRUITS 37 

corresponds to 183^ ounces; 560 grams to 18% ounces; 
and 500 grams to 16% ounces. 

12. Sirups and Hydrometers. In commercial canning, 
fruits are packed in the cans before cooking. A sirup is 
added and the fruit is cooked in this sirup in the can. 
The sirups are made to contain various percentages of 
sugar, according to the various grades and varieties of 
fruit. 

The sirups are tested before use by means of a sugar 
hydrometer or saccharometer. There are two general 
makes of hydrometers; namely, those which indicate 
the per cent of sugar directly, and those which indicate 
the Baume degree, which is approximately one-half the 
real per cent of sugar. The Brix and Balling hydrom- 
eters indicate actual per cent of sugar. 

The hydrometers consist of a glass tube with a long 
narrow stem at the top and an enlarged lower end 
weighted with shot or mercury. The upper stem carries 
a scale marked either in per cent sugar (Balling or Brix 
degress) or in degrees Baume. The instruments sink 
to in water. Liquids containing sugar or other ma- 
terials in solution exert a greater buoyant effect than 
water and the instrument rises in proportion to the 
amount of sugar present. 

To use the instrument, a tall glass jar or cylinder is 
filled with the sirup. A tall green olive jar or a tall nar- 
row flower vase will do for a cylinder. The hydrometer 
is inserted and the degree indicated at the surface of the 
liquid is read. (See Fig. 32.) 

The sirup should be cool when the test is made be- 
cause high temperatures cause the reading to be too low. 

The hydrometer need not be used in household can- 
ning. Sirups can be made up accurately enough for 
this purpose by making use of the following table. For 
each gallon of water used in making the sirup weigh out 
the amount of sugar given in Column 3 of the table and 



CANNING FRUITS 



39 



dissolve in one gallon of water. To use Column 4, 
measure out the amount of sugar indicated and dissolve 
in one quart of water. 



Table 3. Amounts of Sugar to use Per Gallon of Water to 
Give Sirups of Various Percentages of Sugar * 



Per Cent Sugar 

{Degree Brix or 

Balling) 


Degree Baume 


Amount of 

Sugar per 

Gallon of 

Water 


Number of 

8-Ounce 

Measuring 

Cups of Sugar 

per Quart 


5 


2.8 
5.5 
8.3 
11.1 
13.8 
16.5 
19.2 
21.9 
24.6 
27.2 
29.8 
32.4 
34.9 


7 oz. 
15 " 

1 lb. 8 " 

2 " 2 " 

2 " 13 " 

3 " 10 " 

4 « 7 « 

5 " 10 " 

6 " 14 " 
8 " 6 " 

10 " 4 " 
12 " 10 " 
15 " 11 " 


Vs 


10 : 


3 /8 
l /2 
3 /4 
1 


15 


20 


25 


30 


lVs 

l 3 /s 


35 


40 


l 3 /4 

2 


45 


50 


3 


55 


4 


60 

65 


5 
6 







1 From Circular 158, University of California Experiment Station. 
Page 15. 



The sirup in home canning is added boiling hot to save 
time in sterilizing and to avoid the necessity of " ex- 
hausting." See paragraph 14. The sirup may be heated 
in a teapot and poured directly into the jars or cans. It 
should be poured down through the center of fruit packed 
in jars rather than against the sides of the jar. This 
will prevent breakage. (See Fig. 10.) 

13. Cane vs. Beet Sugar. An unwarranted prejudice 
exists against beet sugar for canning. Cane and beet 
sugar are one and the same thing chemically and modern 



40 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

factory methods produce beet sugar of just as good 
quality as the best cane sugar. Both are used in com- 
mercial canneries with equally good results. 

A number of years ago beet sugar was in some cases 
poorly refined and occasionally of poor flavor on this 
account. This condition no longer exists and beet sugar 
can be used for canning, jelly making, preserves, mar- 
malades, etc., to just as good advantage as cane sugar. 

14. Exhausting. If fruit is put up in solder top or 
sanitary cans (see Recipe 1, Part III), the contents of 
the can should be hot when it is sealed. In commercial 
canneries, this condition is attained by heating the cans 
and contents after the can is filled and before it is closed. 
The same effect is obtained in home canning by adding 
boiling hot sirup or water to the fruit in the can. 

Exhausting or the addition of hot sirup expands the 
contents of the can. The can is then sealed and sterilized. 
On cooling, the contents contract again and form a 
vacuum in the can. Hence the origin of the term " ex- 
hausting.'' The vacuum formed in the can causes the 
ends to be drawn in slightly. If spoiling should occur, 
gas is formed in the can and the edges bulge out. Thus, 
a can of fruit with ends slightly drawn in is known to be 
good. This is the principal reason for exhausting cans, 
or adding boiling hot sirup before sealing them. 

In exhausting solder top cans, the fruit and sirup are 
placed in the can cold. The cap is sealed on the can as 
directed in Recipe 1, but the vent hole is left open. The 
cans are placed in boiling water to about three-fourths 
the depth of the cans. A washboiler or other sterilizer 
can be used. They are left approximately five to ten 
minutes depending on the size of the can. They are 
then removed and the vent hole is closed or " tipped " 
with a drop of solder. The can is then ready for process- 
ing. 

To exhaust sanitary cans, one proceeds as with solder 



CANNING FRUITS 



41 



top cans, but does not place the lid on the can until after 
exhausting. Then it is sealed in a sanitary capper such 
as the one shown in Fig. 13. 

15. Sterilization of Fruits. Sterilization is the destruc- 
tion of all living microorganisms in the product sterilized. 




Fig. 14. A Convenient Form of Washboiler Sterilizer. A. False 
bottom of wooden slats. B. Jars on false bottom, showing level 
of liquid outside of jars; lids on loosely. C. Tight fitting lid 
for boiler. 

It is usually accomplished by heat and accompanied 
by hermetic sealing so that the contents of the container 
will not become re-infected with microorganisms. 

Fruits, because of their high acidity, are easily steril- 
ized by heat; a temperature of 165° F. being sufficient. 



42 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

However, since it is usually desirable to cook the fruit 
at the same time, the sterilization is carried out at the 
boiling point, i. e., 212° F. 

The old household method consisted in cooking the 
fruit in a pot and pouring it boiling hot into scalded cans 
or jars and sealing at once without further treatment. 
This method is unsafe because often the jars and caps 
do not get thoroughly sterilized by the hot fruit, and 
spoiling results. 

Sterilizing the fruits in the container is much safer 
and more economical of time and labor. Any form of 
sterilizer in which the cans or jars may be subjected to 
the temperature of boiling water for the desired length 
of time may be used. 

A very simple sterilizer for home use may be made 
by placing a false slat or screen bottom in a washboiler. 
The jars rest on this false bottom to protect them from 
the direct heat of the flame. (See Fig. 14.) A very 
convenient frame for holding jars in a washboiler may 
be bought in the form of a rack used ordinarily for boil- 
ing clothes. Figure 16 illustrates such a rack. This also 
acts as a false bottom. It is improved by soldering a 
wire guard on the sides of the rack to hold the jars in 
place. 

In using a washboiler sterilizer the jars are filled with 
fruit and hot sirup or water is added, the lids and rub- 
bers placed on loosely, enough water is added to the 
boiler so that when the jars are placed in it the water 
will rise to about two-thirds the height of the jars, the 
water is heated to the temperature of the jars or a little 
higher, the jars are placed on the false bottom, the 
cover is placed on the boiler, the water is heated to 
boiling, and boiled for the length of time desired for the 
particular fruit to be sterilized. The time is counted 
from the time the water is actively boiling. The tops of 
the jars are heated by the steam. If the lid of the boiler 



CANNING FRUITS 



43 



fits imperfectly a towel may be placed between the lid 
and boiler top to make the seal more perfect. (See 
Fig. 15.) 

The jars after sterilization are removed at once and 
the caps are tightened. If the false bottom or rack is 
equipped with handles the removal of the hot jars is 




Fig. 15. Washboiler Sterilizer with Cover Made Tight by Use of a 
Cloth. This is a very effective method of covering boilers that 
have poorly fitting covers. 

greatly facilitated. Jar tongs may also be used to lift 
the jars from the hot water. 

The length of time of sterilization will vary with dif- 
ferent fruits and with the maturity of the fruit. This 
variation is because of the differences in texture; not 
because some fruits are harder to sterilize than others. 



44 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

Firm fruits, such as certain varieties of clingstone 
peaches, and pears, require a longer time than softer 
fruits, such as most freestone peaches and plums. The 
length of sterilization for various fruits is taken up 
under the recipes for each fruit. 

Various forms of commercially made sterilizers for 
fruits may be purchased. These give satisfactory re- 
sults and where very large quantities of fruits are to be 
canned their use may become desirable. There are 
types of commercial sterilizers designed primarily for 
the sterilization of vegetables and meats under steam 
pressure, but which can also be used for fruits. These 
are discussed under paragraph 21, Sterilization of 
Vegetables. (See Fig. 18.) 



CHAPTER IV 
CANNING VEGETABLES 

As a rule, vegetables are more difficult to can success- 
fully than are fruits. However, if the fundamental 
principles involved are well understood, good results 
may be uniformly obtained in canning all vegetables 
with ordinary kitchen equipment. The difficulties of 
vegetable canning and methods of overcoming these 
difficulties are taken up in the following paragraphs. 

A great deal of interest has been taken recently in 
vegetable canning, because of cases of fatal poisoning 
from the use of home canned vegetables. These poison- 
ings have been caused by a very powerful toxin produced 
in jars or cans of improperly sterilized vegetables by 
the growth of an organism known as Bacillus botulinus. 
Experiments and experience have shown, however, that 
the methods described in this book are perfectly safe. 
All that is necessary is that the methods be well under- 
stood and applied intelligently. 

16. Peeling and Preparing. Vegetables for canning 
should be as fresh as possible. Waste no time in getting 
the vegetable from the garden into the can. Asparagus 
becomes tough and bitter if held twenty-four hours. 
String beans lose flavor and crispness; peas may ferment; 
and corn loses in flavor and sweetness if kept too long 
uncanned after gathering. The vegetables should there- 
fore be canned on the same day that they are picked. 

Vegetables should usually be graded for size and ap- 
pearance. The amount of grading will depend on whether 
the product is for home use or for sale. Grade asparagus 
into two or three sizes and peas into young tender pods 

45 



46 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

and larger, more mature pods. Other vegetables need 
not be graded, unless for sale. In this case select the 
material of best appearance for canning for market and 
the less attractive vegetables for home use. 

The vegetables should be thoroughly washed to re- 
move earth, etc. A large tub may be used for this. 






i 




Fig. 16. Closing Jars after Sterilizing, a, Convenient rack to hold 
jars in sterilizer; this is known as a rack for boiling clothes; any 
hardware store can get one for you. The jars can be raised or 
lowered by it and it also serves as a false bottom, b, Pressing 
down the clamp of a glass top jar. c, Jars cooling. 

In small scale canning the peeling, cutting, and prep- 
aration for the can must in practically all cases be done 
by hand. Root vegetables such as beets, turnips, and 
carrots, may be peeled by the peeler shown in Figure 43. 
In canning factories, peas are threshed and graded by 
machinery, while corn is silked and cut from the cob by 
special machines. Other vegetables are prepared largely 
by hand labor. 

17. Blanching or Parboiling. Most vegetables are 
given a short preliminary boiling in water after grading, 
cutting, and peeling. This improves the texture and 



CANNING VEGETABLES 



47 



color and usually removes disagreeable flavors and 
mucilaginous substances from the skins. The process is 
spoken of as " blanching," but is nothing more nor less 
than parboiling. 

The prepared vegetables are placed in a screen basket 
or in a cheesecloth and plunged into vigorously boiling 




Fig. 17. Positions of Clamp on Glass Top Jar before and after 
Sterilizing. A. Before and during sterilization. B. After 
sterilization. 



water for a length of time varying from a few seconds to 
ten minutes, the time depending on the vegetable and 
its degree of maturity. Small green peas will require 
less than a minute, while large stalks of asparagus may 
require ten minutes' blanching. Blanching cooks the 
vegetables more rapidly than cooking in the can, and 
tough vegetables can be made tender with less trouble 
in the blanching process than in the sterilization process. 
Convenient methods of blanching are illustrated in 
Fig. 8. Tomatoes are parboiled or steamed about one 
minute and beets about fifteen minutes to cause the 



48 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 




Fig. IS. Home Size Steam Pressure Sterilizer. (Courtesy of Hcn- 
ninger and Ayes Company, Portland, Oregon.) 

skins to slip off easily in peeling. They are chilled after 
heating to facilitate handling in peeling. 

18. Chilling. The blanched vegetables must be placed 
in the can with all expediency. To make them cool 
enough to handle, they should be plunged into cold 
water after blanching. Chilling in this way also sets 
the color in green vegetables and tends to make most 
vegetables more crisp. 

19. Brine and Acidified Brines. Vegetables, with the 
exception of tomatoes, are canned in dilute brine. Toma- 
toes are canned without any liquid except their own juice. 



CANNING VEGETABLES 



49 



The usual brine contains from two to three ounces of 
salt per gallon. For practical purposes, an ounce is 
equivalent to a level tablespoonful of salt; this rule will 
save trouble in making up small quantities of brine. 

Most vegetables are deficient in acid and if canned in 
a salt brine only are very difficult to sterilize. That is 
to say, the spores of the bacteria occurring on vegetables 
are very difficult to kill under this condition. If, how- 
ever, the deficiency in acidity of the vegetables is made 
up by the addition of a small amount of some harmless 
acid substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, the vege- 
tables are as easily sterilized as fruits. For example, in 
ordinary brine, asparagus must be sterilized for at least 
three hours in boiling water, while if a small amount 
(4 ounces or 8 tablespoonfuls per gallon) of lemon juice 
is added, this vegetable may be sterilized in one hour or 
less. Other vegetables behave similarly. Vinegar may 
be used to replace lemon juice, although slightly more 
is needed because ordinary vinegar is not quite so acid 
as lemon juice. The following table gives the amounts 
of salt and lemon juice or cider vinegar to use for 
various vegetables. 

Table 4. Amounts of Salt and Lemon Juice or Strong Vinegar for 
Vegetable Canning Brines 



Vegetables 


Ounces 
Salt by 
Weight 
per Gal- 
lon of 
Water 


Table- 
spoon- 
fuls 
Salt 
per 
Quart 


Ounces 
by Fluid 
Measure 
of Lemon 
Juice per 
Gallon 


Table - 
spoon- 
fuls 
Lemon 
Juice 

per 
Quart 


Ounces 

Strong 

Vinegar 

by Fluid 

Measure 

per 

Gallon 


Table- 
spoon- 
fuls 
Strong 
Vinegar 

per 
Quart 


Carrots, asparagus, 
string beans, arti- 
chokes, turnips, pars- 
nips, okra, cauli- 
flower 

Peas and spinach 


3 
3 
3 


1 

1 
1 


5 

6 

8 


2V 2 
3 
4 


6 
8 
10 


3 
4 
5 







The advantage of this so-called " lemon juice " method 
is that the time of sterilization in water at 212° is greatly 
shortened and made much more certain. It is probably 



50 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

the most satisfactory method for home canning. The 
amount used does not materially affect the flavor. The 
brine can be discarded when cans are opened and the 
vegetables cooked in fresh liquid or a small amount of 
baking soda may be added. This will remove practically 
all taste of the lemon juice or vinegar, should this flavor 
prove objectionable. Many vegetables are improved 
by the addition of the small amount of lemon juice or 
vinegar recommended. 

20. Addition of the Brine. The brine should be added 
boiling hot to cans that are to be sealed, or the cans 
should be exhausted in steam or boiling water before 
sealing (see paragraph 14). Jars require a shorter time 
to heat if filled with hot brine. A teapot makes a very 
convenient utensil for heating and pouring brines or 
sirups into cans or jars. (See Fig. 10.) 

21. Sterilization. Four ways of sterilizing vegetables 
are used. These are: (a) Sterilization under steam pres- 
sure; (b) intermittent sterilization in boiling water; 
(c) sterilization in boiling water by a single long steriliza- 
tion; and (d) sterilization in boiling water by a relatively 
short heating after addition of a small amount of lemon 
juice or vinegar to the brine used in canning. 

(a) Pressure Sterilization: The boiling point of water 
rises if steam is confined in a closed space, and tempera- 
tures much above 212° F. can be attained in this way. 
By this means the spores of many bacteria that are 
killed with the greatest difficulty at the temperature of 
boiling water are destroyed by a few minutes' heating 
under five to fifteen pounds' steam pressure. These 
pressures correspond to 228° F. and 250° F., respectively. 

The following table shows the relation between steam 
pressure in pounds per square inch and temperature in 
degrees Fahrenheit. The table is of use where the 
sterilizer used may not be equipped both with a ther- 
mometer and a steam gauge. 



CANNING VEGETABLES 51 

The steam pressure sterilizer is independent of altitude 
and therefore is of value in elevated regions. 

Table 5. Relation Between Steam Pressure in Pounds per 
Square Inch and Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit 

Pressure, Pounds per Temperature, Degrees 

Square Inch Fahrenheit 

212.0 

1 215.2 

2 218.3 

3 221.3 

4 224.2 

5 226.9 

6 229.5 

7 231.9 

8 234.3 

9 236.6 

10 238.8 

11 241.0 

12 243.0 

13 245.3 

14 247.3 

15 249.1 

Several forms of steam pressure sterilizers for home use 
are on the market. There is one known as the " water 
seal outfit," which gives temperatures only slightly above 
the boiling point of water. This is considered favorably 
by many home canners; because it requires only a small 
amount of water, is easily heated, and is inexpensive. 
Another type can be operated only up to five pounds' 
pressure per square inch. Most forms of pressure 
cookers will withstand a steam pressure of 15 pounds or 
more per square inch. 

Steam pressure sterilizers or retorts can be obtained 
in sizes holding from two dozen cans to several thousand. 
The small outfits are heated by direct heat; the large 
ones, by steam from a boiler. 

Steam pressure sterilizers can be used for sterilization 



52 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

at 212° F. by simply opening the release cock and keeping 
the pressure at pounds. 

Steam pressure sterilizers are well suited to sterilization 
of cans but are not convenient for jars. 

In using the sterilizer, seal the cans of vegetables hot 
and place them in the basket or crate. Add water to the 
depth of several inches. Lower the crate and contents 
into the retort. . Clamp the lid securely on the sterilizer 
and leave the release cock open. Heat the water to boil- 
ing and as soon as steam escapes freely from the cock 
close it. The purpose of leaving the cock open at first 
is to allow the steam to displace the air in the retort; 
otherwise the pressure in the retort would be due to 
compressed air and the temperature would be uneven and 
not in proportion to the indicated temperature or pres- 
sure. Heat until the dial of the steam gauge indicates 
the desired pressure or until the thermometer reaches the 
desired temperature for the required length of time by 
regulating the fire or by opening the release cock suffi- 
ciently, and by setting the weight on the safety valve 
so that it will release the steam automatically when the 
proper pressure is reached. 

When the cans have been sterilized sufficiently, open 
the release cock and as soon as the pressure falls to zero, 
remove crate and contents and cool in a tub of cold water 
if cans have been used. 

If jars are used, leave the lids and rubbers on loosely 
during sterilization. Close immediately after removal 
from the sterilizer, but do not, of course, chill the jars. 
(See Fig. 18.) 

(b) Intermittent or Three-Day Sterilization of Vege- 
tables at 212° F. is accomplished by heating the container 
and contents to the boiling point of water for a specified 
length of time on several (usually three), consecutive 
days. It is the most effective method at 212° F., because 
the bacterial spores start to grow between sterilizations 



CANNING VEGETABLES 53 

from the softening effect of the heat and are easily killed 
by the second and third sterilizations. 

Cans are sealed hot and heated usually for one hour in 
boiling water or steam on each of three successive days. 
Jars are heated the first day with rubbers removed and 
caps on jars loosely. At the end of the first sterilization 
rubbers are sterilized in boiling water about five minutes, 
placed on the hot jars and the caps are screwed down. 
The second and third days the sterilizations are carried 
out without loosening the caps because the vacuum 
formed after the first day's sterilization will prevent 
bursting of the jars. 

The three-day method is safe, but often softens the 
vegetables so much that they become unattractive in 
appearance. 

(c) Sterilization of Vegetables at 212° F. by One-Period 
Method: By this method the vegetables are heated in 
boiling water or steam once only, but for a long period of 
time. The method is recommended strongly by the 
United States Department of Agriculture in Farmers' 
Bulletin 839 and is in extensive use. 

No pressure sterilizer is used with this method. It 
sometimes results in softening of the vegetables from 
overcooking. Results of investigations by Dr. Dickson 
of Stanford indicate that this method does not always kill 
spores of certain bacteria. Method " (2)," described be- 
low, requires a shorter time of sterilization and there- 
fore results in a more attractive product. 

(d) Sterilization by the Lemon Juice Method: If a 
small amount of harmless vegetable acid in the form of 
lemon juice or vinegar is added, the brine vegetables are 
easily sterilized by a single sterilization at 212° F. The 
vegetables are best acidified by adding the lemon juice or 
vinegar to the brine used in filling the cans or jars. The 
amounts to use for various vegetables will be found in 
Table 4. The method is used as follows: 



54 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

Pack the vegetables in the usual way. Add the hot 
brine which has been acidified. Seal the cans and put 
rubbers and caps loosely on the jars. Sterilize in boiling 
water or steam from three-quarters to two hours, depend- 
ing upon the vegetable. Remove cans and chill in water. 
Remove jars and seal. 

This method does not result in overcooking and retains 
the color and flavor more perfectly than other methods. 
It produces a slight acid taste in some vegetables. This 
can be removed before cooking for the table by drawing 
off the brine and cooking in fresh water in the usual way 
or by adding a small amount of baking soda before cook- 
ing for the table. The method has been proven safe and 
free from danger of botulinus poisoning. 



CHAPTER V 
CANNING OF MEATS 

Meats are seldom canned in the household, because of 
the great difficulty of sterilizing them without a steam 
retort, and because of the fear of serious or fatal poison- 
ing from the use of improperly sterilized meat. Steriliza- 
tion can be safely accomplished without special equip- 
ment if care is used. Chicken, rabbit, salmon, trout, 
fresh pork, and other meats of which there, for some 
reason, may be a surplus, may be preserved in attractive 
form in this way. 

22. Preparation of Meats for Canning. Meats are 
canned fresh or after curing or after a preliminary cook- 
ing. 

Chicken and rabbit are usually first cooked and canned 
in the boneless condition or in pieces as the meat comes 
from the roasting oven or fry pan. The fresh meat may 
also be cut in pieces to fit the containers and sterilized 
without previous cooking. By the last process the meat is 
not usually so attractive as where it is first cooked in 
some way before canning. A suitable sauce or gravy 
should be added. 

Beef is usually corned before canning (see Recipe 129) 
and canned with a gelatin broth which sets to a firm jelly 
when the meat is cooked after sterilization. 

Fish is ordinarily canned fresh after cutting to fit 
the can. Various sauces or oil may be used to fill the 
cans, especially with small fish such as sardines. Tomato 
sauce is also used extensively. " Kippered " fish is also 
canned. This is fish soaked in brine and smoked a short 

55 



56 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

time. (See Recipe 139.) Salmon, tuna, shad roe, etc., 
are canned without added liquid. 

23. Sterilization of Meats. Meats because of their 
low acidity, high protein content, and the presence of 
spore-bearing bacteria, are very difficult to sterilize. 
Pressure sterilizers or intermittent sterilization are very 
necessary in order that fatal poisoning from botulinus 
bacteria may not result. Mrs. Thomas of San Francisco, 
now with the Extension Division of the University of 
California, has made experiments in which she sterilized 
chicken in a brine acidified with about five ounces of 
lemon juice per gallon. She found that the meat was 
easily sterilized in boiling water. The method has not 
been tested sufficiently to warrant a recommendation for 
its general use. It seems very promising, however. 

Meats should be sterilized under 10 to 15 pounds pres- 
sure for one heating or for l}/£ hours in actively boiling 
water on each of three successive days. The one-period 
method at 212° F. is not recommended. 



CHAPTER VI 
STORAGE AND SPOILING OF CANNED FOODS 

Canned foods should be stored under proper conditions 
in order that they shall keep to the best advantage. 

A knowledge of the causes and results of the spoiling 
of canned goods is of great importance. 

24. Storage of Canned Foods. If intended for mar- 
ket, canned fruits, vegetables, and meats should be 
stored a month or more to be certain that all goods 
marketed are in sound condition. A cool dark storage 
room is best for permanent storage, while a warm room 
is best if it is desired to ascertain whether the material 
will keep. Warm temperatures cause rapid growth of 
the microorganisms causing spoiling. 

Fruits in jars will retain their color better if the jars 
are wrapped in paper to exclude the light. 

The storeroom must be dry to prevent molding of 
jars and rusting of cans. Freezing and thawing injures 
the flavor and texture of canned goods; therefore, the 
storage room should be kept above the freezing point. 

25. Spoiling of Canned Foods — Botulinus Poisoning. 
As stated in previous chapters, spoiling is due to the 
growth of microorganisms. 

Fruits, • because of their composition, are spoiled by 
molds or yeast. The spoiling of jars or cans of fruits 
usually means imperfect sealing and leaky containers, 
into which yeasts or molds gain access after sterilization. 
As the cans or jars cool after sterilization the contents 
contract, forming a vacuum, through which air with 
mold and yeast cells is drawn if the container has a 
small leak. 

57 



58 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

The products formed in a spoiled can or jar of fruit 
are alcohol and carbon dioxide from fermentation of the 
sugar. No poisonous compounds are formed. The 
carbon dioxide gas will cause the jar or can to burst if 
there is no other way for it to escape. 

Vegetables are spoiled most commonly after steriliza- 
tion by spore-bearing bacteria not killed during steriliza- 
tion. Corn, peas, and asparagus are difficult to sterilize 




b c 

Fig. 19. Normal and Spoiled Cans of Food, a, Normal, b, Swelled 
can. c, Can burst by pressure of gas caused by fermentation. 
(After Zavalla.) 

and often develop growths of various resistant bacteria. 
Vegetables are also spoiled by bacteria gaining entrance 
through leaks after sterilization. In these cases, the 
bacteria are usually of the lactic acid non-spore bearing 
type, in contrast to the non-acid forming spore bearers 
met with in imperfectly sterilized cans of vegetables. 

Usually the products of decomposition in vegetables 
are harmless, although often vile in taste and odor. 
Occasionally, however, botulinus bacilli spores will be 
present and survive the heating process. These de- 
velop and produce a very violent poison. Many fatal 



STORAGE AND SPOILING OF CANNED FOODS 59 

cases have come to the notice of state boards of health, 
where death was caused by the use of imperfectly steril- 
ized corn, peas, or string beans. The poison is so power- 
ful that a single grain of corn from a can heavily in- 
fected with botulinus will cause death. 

The presence of botulinus is hard to detect. Usually 
a rancid odor will be noticed and gas pressure normally 
develops, but the flavor may not be objectionable. 

The poison is destroyed by heating the vegetables to 
boiling for half an hour after taking from the can. 
Most fatal cases have resulted where the vegetables 
have been used from the can or jar for salads, etc., with- 
out cooking thoroughly before serving. 

Suspected vegetables should not be fed to chickens or 
animals without thorough boiling because the poison is 
fatal to animals as well as to human beings. 

The cases of poisoning have occurred where vege- 
tables have been canned by the hot-pack method without 
sterilization in the can. Where thorough sterilization 
by any one of the methods given in paragraph 21 is 
employed there is no danger from botulinus. Tomatoes 
do not develop botulinus. Other vegetables do. 

Meats spoil in ways similar to those noted for vege- 
tables and there is danger from botulinus poisoning un- 
less the meats are thoroughly sterilized. Fish and other 
marine products are especially difficult to sterilize and 
therefore must be canned with great care. Dr. Dickson 
of Stanford has done a great deal of work on the occur- 
rence of botulinus in food products, especially in canned 
vegetables. 



CHAPTER VII 
FRUIT JUICES 

Refreshing juices of pleasing flavor can be made from 
many fruits. The problem is one of so preserving the 
juice that as much as possible of its fresh flavor and ap- 
pearance is retained. The most practical way of ac- 
complishing this is by pasteurization by heat at tem- 
peratures from 150° to 180° F. 

26. Fruits for Juice. Fruits for juice making should 
possess an agreeable flavor and aroma and be rather 
tart in taste. Very sweet fruits of low acid do not make 
attractive juices. Grapes should possess an agreeable 
flavor and high acid. A red color is preferred to white. 
The Eastern varieties have these qualities in a single 
variety. Two Calif ornian varieties must be blended; 
one furnishing flavor and the other color and acid. 
Muscat, blended with any tart red wine grape, will give 
the desired result. Concord, Isabella, or other good 
Eastern varieties, used alone, give good results. The 
grapes should not be too sweet. A juice of 20% sugar 
and .8% to 1% acid is of the proper composition. 

Loganberries make an excellent juice. They should 
be as ripe as possible. 

Blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries make 
rather poor juices. 

Apple juice is used in great quantities fresh, but a 
relatively small amount is pasteurized, largely because 
apples may be obtained practically throughout the 
whole year for the production of fresh juice. 

Orange and lemon juices have not been successes com- 

60 



FRUIT JUICES 



61 



mercially, because of the difficulty in retaining the flavor 
of the fresh juices. 

Pomelo or grape fruit juice has been developed com- 
mercially in Florida. 

Pineapple juice as now found on the market is attrac- 
tive in appearance, but very disappointing in flavor. 




Fig. 20. Small Crusher for Home Use. (Courtesy of Berger and 
Charter Company, San Francisco, California.) 

Pomegranates produce a highly colored juice of fair 
flavor, but there is considerable difficulty in separating 
the juice-bearing seeds from the astringent pulp. 

Grape, apple, loganberry, and pomelo juices are all 
easily prepared and are all of very satisfactory quality. 
Other fruits may prove satisfactory sources of juice as 
methods of preparing the juice are developed by in- 
vestigation. 

27. Crushing. To facilitate heating of the fruit before 
pressing and the extraction of the juice the fruit must be 
thoroughly crushed. 



62 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



In the household a small food chopper or small fruit 
crusher may be used. (See Fig. 20.) Small hand power 
crushers are available for farm use. (See Fig. 22.) Larger 
crushers for factory use are of many types, sizes, and 

prices. Grape crush- 
ers consist of two 
wooden or iron cylin- 
ders revolving closely 
enough together to 
crush the fruit but not 
the seeds. It is de- 
sirable to separate the 
stems from grapes 
after crushing. This 
is done by mechanical 
stemmers or by hand 
by use of a coarse 
screen. 

28. Heating before 
Pressing. The color 
of grapes must be dis- 
solved from the skins 
by heating. Berries 
will press more satis- 
factorily if heated. 
Citrus fruits, pome- 
granates, and apples 
should not be heated. 
The crushed grapes 
should be heated to 
about 120° to 135° 
F. by use of an aluminum or agateware pot. They 
should be stirred frequently and the temperature ob- 
served carefully with a dairy or other type of ther- 
mometer, that can be conveniently immersed in the 
crushed grapes. Grapes are allowed to stand twenty- 




Fig. 21. Pressing Crushed Fruit. 



FRUIT JUICES 



63 



four hours before pressing to permit the color to dissolve 
in the juice. The grapes may also be heated by separat- 
ing the juice by pressing and heating it to 140 to 150° F. 
and returning it to the skins. 

Berries should be heated to about 150 to 165° F. and 
pressed hot. 





FIG. 56 2 

Fig. 22. Small Crusher and Press for Farm Use. (Courtesy 
of Berger and Carter Company, San Francisco, California.) 

29. Pressing. The simplest press is a heavy cloth 
bag which may be twisted. Small kitchen presses may 
be had also. Various sizes and forms of presses suitable 
for farm and factory use may be had. The hydraulic 
press is the most commonly used commercial press and 
gives the highest pressure of any fruit press. 



64 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



Pressure is applied directly to the fruit in the " bas- 
ket " form of press. In the rack and cloth type the fruit 
is held between layers of heavy press cloths. Wooden 

racks separate the 
cloths. This type of 
press gives a clearer 
juice than the basket 
press but requires 
more labor. 

30. Clearing the 
Juice. The juice 
comes from the press 
cloudy — not perfectly 
clear. It also con- 
tains proteins in solu- 
tion which, if not re- 
moved, are coagu- 
lated during pasteuri- 
zation later and cause 
the juice to become 
cloudy. Therefore, to 
produce a juice which 
will be clear and re- 
main so in the bottle, 
it must be heated to 
the temperature at 
which the juice is to 
be pasteurized later 
and must then be fil- 
tered or otherwise 
cleared. The juice 
will then clear more 
stand overnight after 
After standing this 
off from the sediment 




Fig. 23. Straining juice after pressing. 
Same arrangement may be used for 
separating juice from crushed soft 
fruits. 

satisfactorily if it is allowed to 
pressing and before clarifying, 
length of time it may be drawn 
and cleared in any way desired. 



FRUIT JUICES 65 

The juice may be clarified by the addition of egg white, 
casein, or Spanish clay before heating. These materials 
are coagulated and settle out after heating, carrying 
down with them the suspended particles which have 
caused the juice to be cloudy. Grape juice may be 
clarified by any of the above materials used singly; or 
with casein or egg white employed in combination with 
the clay. Other juices are best clarified by the use of the 
clay only. Casein may be bought from a drug store or 
chemical supply house. Spanish clay may be obtained 
from chemical supply firms. 

The casein is prepared for use by boiling together 
three ounces of casein to one ounce of sal soda in one 
quart of water. When dissolved, this is diluted to one 
gallon with water. Spanish clay is prepared for use by 
soaking a weighed amount in a measured amount of 
water until soft. One gallon of water is used for each 
pound of clay. When soft it is worked into a thin, even- 
grained mud with the water. Egg white is mixed with 
several times its volume of water and stirred until dis- 
solved. Dried albumen may also be used. 

In using the clarifying materials described above, the 
amount necessary is measured and added to the juice and 
mixed thoroughly by stirring. 

The juice is then heated to 175° F. and allowed to stand 
twenty-four hours. Most of the juice can then be 
poured off clear from the sediment or filtered easily 
through a jelly bag. 

It must be emphasized that clarification is not neces- 
sary for the preservation of the juice, and results in some 
loss of flavor. It is not generally recommended for home 
use. It is only necessary in the home production of 
juice to heat it to 175° F. allow it to cool twenty-four 
hours, and filter through a jelly bag. 

The juice may be filtered through a felt filter bag 
specially made for small scale filtration or through an 



66 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

ordinary cloth bag. Filter bags vary in size from one to 
ten gallons and cost from one and one-half to ten dollars. 
Larger metal filters that are filled with asbestos or wood 
fiber are used in large scale filtration, but cost very much 
more. 

A box filled with sand also makes a fairly satisfactory 
filter. A funnel fitted with filter paper can also be used. 

Filters must be thoroughly washed after use to prevent 
souring. Juice is ordinarily difficult to filter, unless 
clarified, and the filters must be changed and cleaned 
often during continued filtration to maintain them at full 
capacity. 

For home use a rough filtration without a clarification 
is all that is required. 

31. Bottling and Canning. The previous operations 
have prepared the juice for the final container in which 
it is to be stored. Bottles, jars, and cans are all used as 
containers. These should be clean. 

Two types of bottles are available: those with plain 
tops to be closed with corks and those with special tops 
to be closed with caps or crowns. The bottles should not 
be filled completely and a space of about an inch and a 
half should be left between the cork and the juice. 

If the bottles are to be corked, the corks must be 
sterilized in boiling water for ten minutes before they are 
used. Ordinary taper corks of good quality may be 
used, but wine bottle corks driven into the bottles with an 
inexpensive apparatus designed for the work give better 
results. 

The corks must be tied down with a string to hold 
them in place during pasteurization. 

If crown finish bottles such as soda water, beer, or 
grape juice bottles are used, the crowns or caps are 
crimped on by a special machine. This costs from 
five dollars upward. The crowns cost about thirty cents 
per gross and are cheaper and more attractive in ap- 



FRUIT JUICES 67 




Fig. 24. Capping Bottles with Small Hand Power Crown 
Capper. Note that bottles are not completely full. 

pearance than corks. If any great amount of juice is to be 
put up, their use is recommended. 

Cans may be used for the less acid juices, such as grape 
and apple juices, but are not recommended for very acid 
berry or lemon juice, because of the danger of the solution 
of tin in poisonous quantities. Enamel lined cans are 
best and sanitary cans are to be preferred to solder top 
cans because of the danger from the action of the juice 
on the solder used in sealing the latter. 

Cans may be filled with hot juice at 180° F. and sealed 
at once without further sterilization. A better plan is 
to fill them with warm (not hot) juice, seal, and then 
pasteurize. 



68 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 




Fig. 25. Sterilizing Bottles of Juice. Note that bottles lie 
horizontally and are completely immersed in the water. 

Jars may also be used. They are filled with the warm 
juice and sealed at once with scalded caps and rubbers. 
The juices are pasteurized in the jars. 

32. Pasteurization of Fruit Juices. Fruit juices must 
not be overheated but nevertheless they must be heated 
to a high enough temperature to insure their keeping. 
This temperature is between 165° and 170° F. The 
temperature must be maintained for about twenty 
minutes. Juice should never be boiled. 

The most convenient and certain way of obtaining 
these conditions is to heat the bottles or cans while they 
are completely immersed in water. 



FRUIT JUICES 



69 



*= 



m v vvum Ti i uvyw tt nnSSSS I l v - u SpS SS BEBSSS ESBSSSI BSSBS y 



m^^^SE^mSS^^^^^S^ SSESSSwL 



! 

r 



8:©«-c 



Fig. 26. Wooden Vat with Steam Coil for Use in Sterilizing Bottles 
of Juice or Cans of Food. A. Walls (of wood). B. False Bot- 
tom. C. Steam Coil. 

An ordinary wash boiler with a false bottom makes a 
satisfactory pasteurizer; or any of the factory-made 
home and farm sterilizers may be filled with water and 
used as pasteurizers. 



* 



i 



wmmnmnmmmmmmiumMntmffmmtmmtmm 






o o o 



Q 



Q 



coo 



-FTT 4 — ' 



MZM2 MzaEa^BBz^aza^Mzzz»maa2zag MZ^ 



Fig. 27. Plan for Arrangement of Steam Coil of Fig. 26. Show- 
ing perforations for escape of steam for direct heating of water. 



70 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 




Fig. 28. Dipping Ends of Bottles in Melted Paraffin to Seal 
Corks after Pasteurizing. This is not necessary if 
crown caps are used. 



See Fig. 25. A larger pasteurizer may be made of a 
wooden tank and steam coils as indicated in Figs. 26 
and 27. 

The sealed jars, bottles, or cans, are placed in the 
pasteurizer and completely covered with water. Bottles 
should lie horizontally so that the hot juice will sterilize 
the corks. With a thermometer inserted in the water, it 
is heated to 175° F. and maintained at this temperature 
for twenty minutes. The temperature in the containers 



FRUIT JUICES 71 

will be several degrees below 175° F. The bottles or cans 
are then removed. The necks of corked bottles should 
be dipped in paraffin or sealing wax as soon as removed 
and again when cool. Bottles closed with crown caps 
need not be so treated. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FRUIT AND OTHER SIRUPS 

Many fruits and other substances may be used as 
sources of sugary liquids which may be evaporated to 
sirups suitable for cooking and table use. In most cases 
the ordinary kitchen utensils will be all that is required 
in the way of equipment. 

33. Sources of Sirups. Maple, sugar, beet, cane, and 
sweet sorghum saps; grape, apple, peach, prune and some 
other fruit juices can all be used as sources of table and 
cooking sirups. They can be prepared with ordinary 
kitchen equipment. Such sirups will be more or less 
dark colored and will not be equal in flavor to the best 
grades of commercially prepared table sirup, but still 
very palatable sirups can be produced in the home. 

34. Clearing the Juice. The juices should be ex- 
pressed as for fruit juices. The juice should be made as 
clear as possible before concentration by heating to 
boiling for a short time with clarifying agents as de- 
scribed in paragraph 30 or by nitration after boiling. 
The clearer the juice is before concentration the more 
attractive will the sirup be. The juice will filter more 
rapidly hot than cold. 

35. Deacidification. Some juices are improved for 
table use by removing a portion of the acidity before con- 
centration. This is especially true of grape, sorghum, and 
apple juices. Precipitated chalk will combine with and 
remove fruit acids. It may be obtained at any drug store. 

The acidity must not be completely neutralized or the 
sirup will be very dark colored and of poor flavor. Par- 
tial deacidification is best accomplished as follows: 

72 



FRUIT AND OTHER SIRUPS 



73 



The cleared juice is divided into two portions, one 
equivalent to three-fourths and the other one-quarter of 
the total. To each gallon of the larger portion is added 
an ounce of the chalk. It is heated with constant stirring 
to boiling. It is then removed from the fire and allowed 
to stand twenty-four hours. The clear juice is poured off 
from the sediment and filtered. The sediment may be 
filtered to recover the juice contained in it. 




Fig. 29. Apparatus for Sun Evaporation of Fruit Juices. A. Shal- 
low trough or pan to hold juice. B. Pieces of cheesecloth for 
evaporation of juice. C. Line to hold cloths. D. Posts for 
support of line. 

To the treated juice is added the untreated portion. 
This will give a combined juice of one-fourth the acidity 
of the original fresh juice. 

Juices of very low acid need not be treated with chalk. 

36. Concentration. The sirup must be boiled down 
until it will test 70° Brix or Balling or 37° Baume in 
order that it will contain enough sugar to prevent spoil- 
ing. The concentration should be carried out as rapidly 
as possible in shallow vessels to minimize scorching the 
sirup and darkening the color. 

Large factories carry out the concentrating process 



74 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

under a vacuum, which causes the juice to boil at a lower 
temperature than 212° F. This prevents darkening of 
the color and scorching. Vacuum evaporators are too 
expensive for small scale operations and the housewife or 
farmer must use open pans or kettles. 

The shallower the pan, the more rapid the evaporation 
will be and the less the injury to flavor and color. A 
large rectangular tin lined pan built in over a brick 
furnace can be used for larger scale work. These pans 
are usually so arranged by partitions that the juice may 
be added at the upper end of the pan and sirup will 
flow from the lower end, the excess water being boiled off 
as the juice flows from the upper to the lower end. 

During evaporation, samples of the sirup should be 
taken and transferred to a tall jar and tested with a 
hydrometer. A tall olive bottle or tall narrow can will 
answer for a hydrometer jar. The hydrometer may be 
purchased from any chemical supply house for about 
fifty to seventy-five cents or through a drug store. The 
druggist will usually order one on request. The Brix 
or Balling hydrometers ordered should read from to 
70° and the Baume from to 50°. A glass cylinder for the 
hydrometer, if desired, can be obtained for about fifty 
cents. If the purchase of a tester is not deemed worth 
while the sirup is simply boiled down to a very thick 
consistency. It may also be boiled down only partially 
and sealed in jars or bottles boiling hot. If this is done 
the sirup will keep with less than 65% sugar. 

Sun Evaporation: Sirup may also be made by evapora- 
tion in the sun by the Waterhouse method. The clear 
juice is placed in a broad shallow pan or in a shallow 
wooden trough. Above this is hung a number of lines 
from which hang pieces of cheese cloth. The whole ap- 
paratus is placed in the open. The cheese cloth is 
dipped in the juice and hung on the lines. The air and 
sun quickly dry the juice on the cloth to a sirup. The 



FRUIT AND OTHER SIRUPS 75 

cloths are then dipped in the juice and the sirup wrung 
out into the juice. They are again wet with the juice 
and hung up to dry. The process is repeated until the 
consistency of a heavy sirup is reached. This process 
was developed by Addison G. Water house, and was 
patented by him a number of years ago. He devised a 
number of methods by which the cheesecloth was made 
in the form of a long endless belt which revolved slowly. 
It passed through the juice at one end of the circuit 
and through rollers at the other end which squeezed 
out the evaporated juice. 

The method is easy of application and inexpensive. 
(See Fig. 29.) 

37. Storing the Sirup. If concentrated so that the 
juice will test 70° Balling or Brix or 37° Baume when 
cold, the sirup may be stored in any sort of tin, glass, 
or wooden container without sterilization. If less con- 
centrated than this, it should be poured boiling hot into 
scalded jars, bottles, or cans, and sealed hot. It will 
then keep indefinitely. 



CHAPTER IX 
JELLIES AND MARMALADES 

The production of both jellies and marmalades de- 
pends on the same principles, and the methods of manu- 
facture are similar. For these reasons they have been 
discussed together in this chapter. 

The following paragraphs give the fundamental prin- 
ciples as well as a discussion of various tests for jelly. 




30. The Pectin Test. To test suitability of fruit juices for 
jelly making. 

These enable anyone at all familiar with cooking to ob- 
tain uniform results. 

38. Fruits for Jelly. A fruit jelly depends for its con- 
sistency upon three substances. These are pectin and 
acid, from the fruit, and sugar, which is added. If any 
one of the three components is lacking or too small in 
amount, jelly cannot be made. 

76 



JELLIES AND MARMALADES 



77 



Certain fruits are rich in both pectin and acid. Ex- 
amples are sour apples, crab apples, currants, logan- 
berries, and lemons. Jelly is easily made from these 
fruits. Some fruits contain moderate amounts of pectin 
and acid. Examples are loquats, oranges, ripe apples, 
blackberries, grape fruit, and some varieties of plums. 
Jellies can be made from these fruits if care is taken. 
Some fruits are rich in pectin but low in acid. The guava, 
quince, and fejoia are examples. Acid fruits must be 
added to such fruits. Other fruits are low in pectin but 
rich in acid; for example, rhubarb and gooseberries. 
Still other fruits are deficient in both acid and pectin. 
Peaches, apricots, prunes, pears, strawberries, and rasp- 
berries belong to this class. They must be combined 
with such fruits rich in pectin as currants, crab apples, 
or sour apples, before jelly can be made from them. 
Table 6. Suitability of Various Fruits for Jelly 



Fruits Rich in 


Fruits with Me- 
dium Amounts 
of Pectin and 
Acid. Will 
make Jelly if 
Carefully Used 


Fruits Rich 


Fruits Low in 


Pectin and Acid. 
Jelly can be 


in Pectin but 
Low in Acid. 


Pectin and 
Acid. Fruit 


Easily Made 


Acid Fruit 


from Column 1 


from Them 


must be Added 


must be Added 


Sour apples 


Ripe apples 


Guava 


Apricots 


Crab apples 


Blackberries 


Fejoia 


Peaches 


Currants 


Oranges 


Unripe Figs 


Pears 


Loganberries 


Grape fruit 


Pie Melon 


Strawberries 


Lemons 


Loquat 




Raspberries 


Cranberries 


Most plums 






Sour plums 


California 






Eastern varieties 


grapes 






of grapes 


Sour cherries 
Quinces 







39. Preparing and Cooking the Fruit. The fruits are 
prepared for cooking by cutting in pieces or by crush- 
ing. Berries and currants should be crushed. Other 
fruits are cut. 



78 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 




Fig. 31. The Thermometer Test for Jellies. To determine 
when jelly has cooked sufficiently. Boil to 218 to 
221° F., depending on consistency desired. 

The pectin is held in the tissues of the fruit and in 
most cases must be liberated by boiling. Jellies can be 
made from currants, loganberries, and cranberries by 
using the juice obtained by crushing and pressing the 
fresh fruit without cooking, but even these soft fruits 
give firmer jellies if boiled before extracting the juice. 



JELLIES AND MARMALADES 79 

In cooking the fruit, water must be added to the less 
juicy varieties, such as apples, plums, etc. Only enough 
should be added to barely cover the fruit; if too much is 
added the juice will be too dilute and failure will result. 
Currants, grapes, and berries need no added water. 

The fruits should be cooked only until tender. For 
apples this will be ten to fifteen minutes' boiling. Berries 
should only be heated to boiling. Oranges, lemons, and 
grape fruit are tough and require about an hour's boiling. 
Long boiling of any fruit results in loss of flavor. 

40. Expressing and Clearing the Juice. The hot juice 
may be pressed from the fruit or may be allowed to 
simply drain from the fruit through a cloth. The latter 
method is usually employed in the household. In fac- 
tories the juice is pressed from the hot fruit with heavy 
pressure. If the juice is merely allowed to drain from 
the fruit through a jelly bag it will be clearer than if 
obtained by pressure, but pressing will give a larger 
yield of juice and the juice will contain more pectin. 
Both methods may be combined by allowing most of 
the juice to drain from the fruit through a jelly bag, fol- 
lowed by pressing out the juice from the residual pulp 
in a small press or by twisting the jelly bag to exert pres- 
sure. Juice obtained by pressure must be filtered through 
a bag several times to clear it. If this is done, very clear 
bright jelly can be made from it. 

All fruit juices for jelly making should be made as 
clear as possible by straining or filtering. 

41. Testing for Pectin. If any doubt as to the jelling 
properties of the juice exists, it should be tested for 
pectin. Failure can often be averted by this test. 

Obtain a small amount (a ten cent bottle) of grain 
alcohol from the druggist. To one teaspoonful of the 
juice in a glass add one teaspoonful of the alcohol and 
stir slowly. If the juice is rich in pectin, a very large 
amount of bulky gelatinous material will form in the 



80 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

glass, almost turning the material to a soft jelly. Juices 
moderately rich in pectin will give a few large pieces of 
gelatinous material and juices too poor in pectin to make 
jelly will give a few small flaky pieces of sediment. 

If the juice proves poor in pectin it must be blended 
with a juice rich in pectin. See paragraph 43 for the 
amount of sugar to add to the juices of various pectin 
content. The less pectin the fruit contains the less sugar 
can be used. 

42. Testing for Acid. Fruits rich enough in pectin to 
give a good jelly may not possess enough acid. No ac- 
curate simple household method can be given, although 
the following test will aid in judging of the acidity of 
the juice. 

To one teaspoonful of lemon juice add nine teaspoon- 
fuls of water, and one-half teaspoonful of sugar. Mix in 
a glass. Place in another glass a little of the fruit juice, 
but add no water to it. 

Compare the tartness of the two liquids by taste. If 
the fruit juice is not as sour as the diluted lemon juice 
it is deficient in acid and it will be necessary to raise the 
acidity of the fruit juice by adding lemon or other sour 
juice. 

With a little practice and experience this test can be 
made very useful, although it is, of course, not very ac- 
curate. 

43. Addition of Sugar. The amount of sugar to add 
to the juice will vary with the pectin and acid content 
of the fruit. Juices such as loganberry, currant, crab 
apple, and sour apples, that are rich in acid and pectin, 
will make good jellies if one cup or as much as one and 
one-quarter cups of sugar are used to each cup of juice. 
In some cases as much as one and one-half cups of sugar 
can be used. 

With fruit juices only moderately rich in pectin, but 
still of fair jelling quality, three-fourths of a cup of sugar 



JELLIES AND MARMALADES 81 

may be used and with fruits low in pectin, only one-half 
a cup of sugar may be used. 

The reason for using less sugar with fruits poorer in 
pectin is seen from the following discussion. To make 
jelly, the juice must finally contain a high amount of 
sugar (55 to 65%), and enough pectin and acid to form 
a jelly with the sugar. Boiling the juice after adding 
the sugar concentrates the pectin by boiling off the excess 
water. The boiling must continue until the jelly con- 
tains 55% or over of sugar. The more sugar is added 
the less boiling is necessary and for the same reason the 
less concentrating of the pectin in the juice takes place. 
If a small amount of sugar is added, more boiling down 
is necessary to produce the requisite high concentration 
of sugar and this results in greater boiling down and 
concentrating of the pectin. Thus, if to a cupful of juice 
poor in pectin only a half cupful of sugar is added the 
juice must be boiled down to a relatively small volume 
and this will so increase the pectin in proportion to the 
sugar that a jelly will usually result. 

The sugar may be added cold as there is no special 
virtue in warming it. 

44. Sheeting Test for Jelling Point. The juice and 
sugar should be boiled down rapidly in shallow pots. 
Long boiling, such as is necessary in large amounts in 
deep pots, results in loss of flavor, darkening of color, 
and caramelization of the sugar. 

The juice must be boiled down until it will jell when 
cold. This will be between 55 and 65% or more sugar, 
depending upon the pectin content of the fruit. The 
usual way of testing this point is to allow the jelly to 
drip from a large spoon. If it falls from the spoon in 
wide sheets it is considered done. It is also usually done 
when the boiling jelly forms large bubbles and appar- 
ently " tries to jump out of the pot." 

45. Thermometer Test. A more accurate test is the 



82 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



Mi 




ft 



thermometer test. A candy or 
other good thermometer is kept 
in the boiling liquid. As the juice 
boils down the boiling tempera- 
ture increases. When it reaches 
221° F. or 105° C, it has reached 
the proper point for a stiff jelly. 
The thermometer must be kept 
well immersed in the boiling j uice 
for this test. (See Fig. 30.) 

When the boiling point reaches 
221° F., it merely indicates that 
the jelly contains 65% sugar. 
This will mean a stiff jelly that 
will stand shipping, assuming 
that the fruit juice contains suf- 
ficient pectin and acid. If a less 
firm jelly is desired, it should be 
boiled only to 219 or 218° F. 
Often for household use such a 
jelly is more desirable than a very 
stiff jelly. It must be remem- 
bered than these figures apply 
only to fruits with a sufficient 
amount of pectin and acid. 

46. Hydrometer Test for Jell- 
ing Point. The various types of 
hydrometers described under 
" Sirups for Canning " (see para- 
graph 11) may be used to test 
the jelling point. Their use is 
not so convenient as that of the 
fig. 32. Baum6 Hydrometer for thermometer. They are more 

B^^epe^f of consl 1 ; certain and satisfactory than 

B^Ltioni.uld^wtcTLy: the sheeting test. 

to°hSff lVuid^" °' Cyhuder While the jelly is boiling hot, 





JELLIES AND MARMALADES 83 

pour it into a tall glass or tin or copper cylinder. A tall 
narrow twenty-five cent flower vase, or a tall narrow 
olive jar, or even a quart milk bottle will answer for a 
cylinder. Insert the hydrometer and read the degree at 
the surface of the liquid. When the test reads 32° 
Baume or 62° Brix or Balling in the hot juice, a stiff 
jelly will result if the juice contains sufficient pectin. 
Similarly, a " qui very " or less firm jelly will result at 
29° Baume or 58° Balling or Brix, assuming that the 
fruit contains sufficient pectin and acid. 

47. Meaning of Thermometer and Hydrometer Tests. 
These tests simply indicate that the jelly contains a 
certain amount of sugar and that boiling has concen- 
trated the juice down to this sugar content. It does not 
necessarily mean that one will always obtain a jelly by 
boiling the juice down to the temperatures or Baume 
and Balling degrees mentioned above. If the fruit is 
deficient in pectin and acid or in only one of these constit- 
uents, jelly cannot be made, regardless of the amount of 
boiling taking place. 

On the other hand, if sufficient pectin and acid are 
present, the above tests are very valuable in determining 
the jelling point. 

48. Pouring and Cooling the Jelly. Pour the jelly into 
glasses or other containers. Paper jelly containers are 
now on the market which answer the purpose very well. 
The glasses should be dry. 

If the jelly is poured through a piece of cheesecloth or 
tea strainer into the glasses, any coarse particles will be 
removed. 

Allow the jelly to cool overnight before sealing with 
paraffin. 

49. Coating with Paraffin. When the jelly has set, 
paraffin should be added to seal it. If paraffin is added 
to the hot jelly the jelly " sweats " or moistens the sides 
of the glass between the paraffin and the glass. This 



84 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

causes the paraffin to become loose so that it no longer 
protects the jelly. The hot jelly also decreases or con- 
tracts in volume as it cools — the paraffin sets before 
contraction ceases and is apt to not fit down closely on 
the jelly later. 

If when the jelly is cold, the inside of the glass above 
the jelly is wiped perfectly dry with a cloth or if the jelly 
is allowed to stand until this part of the glass is abso- 
lutely dry, the paraffin will adhere perfectly when added. 

Add the paraffin hot enough to sterilize the top of the 
jelly. This will insure its keeping. 

50. Sterilization of Jellies. If jellies contain less than 
65% sugar, i. e., the jelly tests less than 32° Baume or 
62° Balling or Brix when hot, or boils at less than 221° F., 
it may ferment or mold unless sterilized in sealed glasses 
or jars. In the hot interior valleys of California house- 
wives lose a great many glasses of jelly by fermentation. 
Under such conditions the jelly should be boiled down 
to the point noted above or should be placed in jars and 
sterilized. This can be done by pouring the hot jelly 
into scalded jars and sealing at once. The glasses are 
then immersed in water at the simmering point for 
fifteen minutes to sterilize the rubbers and caps. Such 
jelly will keep under all conditions of weather. 

51. Jellies without Cooking. A few fruits are so rich 
in pectin and acid that jellies can be made from them 
without heating the fruit or the juice and sugar. Such 
fruits are currants, loganberries, and cranberries.' 

Crush the fruit thoroughly and press out the juice with 
vigorous pressure to force the pectin out of the pulp. 
Strain as clearly as possible. 

Two methods may then be used. By the first method, 
add one and one-half cups of sugar to each cup of juice 
and mix thoroughly until the sugar dissolves. Pour into 
glasses and place the glasses in the sun for several days 
until the jelly becomes firm. The sun evaporates the 



JELLIES AND MARMALADES 85 

excess moisture. Bright sunlight is necessary. When 
jelly has formed, seal with paraffin. 

Jelly may also be made without sun evaporation if 
two cups of sugar are added to each cup of juice. 

52. Jelly Stocks. The juice obtained by draining or 
pressing the hot fruit after cooking may be sterilized in 
bottles as directed for fruit juices (see paragraph 32) or 
poured boiling hot into jars or cans and sealed without 
cooking. This juice or " jelly stock " can be used by the 
usual method at any time by adding sugar and boiling 
down to the jelling point. This economizes on jelly 
glasses and results in fresher flavored jellies. 

53. Crystallization of Jellies. Crystals form in grape 
jelly from the separation of cream of tartar. There is no 
certain way of preventing this. It can be greatly min- 
imized, however, if the juice is boiled down about one- 
half after pressing and is then stored in bottles or jars 
for about six months before being made into jelly. 

Crystallization in other jellies is caused by the presence 
of excess sugar. This may be caused by the sugar added 
in making the jelly or may be caused by crystals of 
glucose, a sugar found in all fruits. It can be prevented if 
the jelly is boiled down so that it contains not more than 
70% sugar. The use of the thermometer and hydrometer 
tests will guard against this common defect in jellies. 

54. Marmalades. Marmalades differ from jellies only 
in the fact that they have pieces of the fruit suspended in 
the jelly. Fruits for marmalade must be rich in pectin 
and acid. 

The principles of marmalade making are the same as 
for jelly making. First, a portion of the fruit is boiled, 
pressed, and strained to give a pectin solution. Part of 
the fruit is cut in thin slices, cooked till tender, and 
added to the juice obtained by boiling and pressing. 
Sugar in equal volume is added and the mixture boiled 
down to the jelling point. 



86 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



Orange marmalade is the best known. Dundee mar- 
malade is the standard. It is made in Scotland from the 
bitter Seville orange shipped from Spain in brine. It 

possesses the peculiar aromatic 
and bitter flavor of this orange. 
In the United States the 
usual commercial varieties of 
oranges, such as the Naval, 
Valencia, Mediterranean Sweet, 
Satsuma, etc., are used in com- 
bination with lemons. Lemons 
furnish the acid and oranges the 
pectin. 

Grape fruit is also used a 
great deal for marmalade, both 
alone and in combination with 
lemons. 

Fruits rich in pectin, such as 
apples, currants, and logan- 
berries may be used as source 
of the pectin solution and shreds of apricots, peach, 
watermelon rind, pear, quince, etc., may be added to 
produce the marmalade effect. 




Fig. 33. Marmalade Sliccr. 
Can also be used for vege- 
tables. (Courtesy of Hen- 
ninger and Ayes Com- 
pany, Portland, Oregon.) 



CHAPTER X 

FRUIT JAMS, BUTTERS, AND PASTES 

These products resemble each other in appearance and 
method of manufacture and are therefore considered 
together. Soft fruit not suitable for canning can often 
be made into the above products. Apple butter and 
other fruit butters are often made without the use of 
sugar, thus affording a way of using certain fruits with- 
out the addition of this otherwise very important item 
in the cost of fruit preserving. 

55. Jams. Jams are made by cooking and crushing 
the whole fruit, adding sugar, and boiling a short time. 
They are usually not heavily spiced and are not cooked 
for any great length of time. The fruit is not broken up 
very finely. Apricots and berries and other fruits of 
high flavor and soft texture are suitable. If a large 
amount of sugar is used, i. e., enough so that the jam 
will contain over 65% sugar after it is cooked, it will 
keep without sterilization. It is usually necessary, how- 
ever, to either pack the jam boiling hot into containers, 
and seal or to sterilize in the containers because the 
amount of sugar ordinarily employed is not sufficient to 
preserve the product indefinitely. 

56. Fruit Butters. Fruit butters differ from fruit jams 
chiefly in that they are boiled longer than jams, are finer 
grained, and smoother in texture, and are usually heavily 
spiced. It is also customary to add the boiled down 
juice or sirup of the fruit to the crushed fruit to replace 
a certain amount of sugar that must otherwise be used. 
Many recipes call for the use of fruit, fruit sirup, and 
spices only, no sugar being added. 

87 



88 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

The fruit juice, usually equal in bulk to the fruit to 
be used, is boiled down to a light sirup and the fruit is 
then cooked down to a thick consistency in the sirup 
with or without the addition of sugar. Apple juice and 
grape juice may be used with many varieties of fruits, 
and a considerable saving in sugar can be so effected. 

57. Fruit Pastes. Fruit butters or jams may be cooked 
down slowly to as thick a consistency as possible without 
scorching. They may then be allowed to evaporate 
slowly on the back of the stove or in shallow dishes in 
the sun to a thick paste. This will keep without steriliza- 
tion. 

The pulp from jelly making may be ground up finely 
and cooked with an equal quantity of sugar to give an 
attractive fruit paste. A sort of confection can be made 
by spreading this on a platter or shallow dish in the sun 
and drying down to a gelatinous firm consistency. It 
can then be cut into cubes to be used as candy or as a 
garnishing for desserts. 



CHAPTER XI 
FRUIT PRESERVES AND CANDIED FRUITS 

Preserves and candied products both owe their flavor, 
appearance, and keeping qualities to the large amount 
of sugar used in their preparation. Preserves are put up 
in a heavy sirup while candied products contain more 
sugar than do preserves and are packed dry. Both are 
expensive because of the sugar necessary and the care 
and time required in their preparation. 

58. Preserves. Preserves are fruits or vegetables 
containing so much sugar in the form of a heavy sirup 
that they are in the nature of a confection. Because of 
their exceedingly high sugar content, sterilization is not 
usually necessary. Fruits for preserves should retain 
their shape well during cooking. Pears, quinces, many 
varieties of peaches, figs, kumquats, pineapple, and 
watermelon rinds are all good for preserves. For most 
fruits it is desirable to start cooking the fruit in a dilute 
sirup of about 30% sugar, or one cup of sugar to about 
two or three of water. If too heavy a sirup is used at 
first the fruit is apt to be tough, regardless of the amount 
of cooking given. A dilute sirup penetrates the fruit. 
When the fruit has become tender enough in the light 
sirup the sirup is concentrated by boiling down to 65% 
sugar or 221° F. as for jellies. The hydrometer test 
may be used to test the sirup. 

Strawberries are often used for preserves, but must be 
handled with care. In this case sugar equal in weight 
to the berries used is added. They are cooked only a 
short time and left to stand in the sirup until they will 
absorb the sirup and become plump. Commercial fac- 

89 



90 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

tories add artificial color in the form of Ponceau 3R and 
Amaranth to give the proper tint to the berries, because 
the natural strawberry color soon fades. 

Preserves are packed hot into jars or glasses and sealed 
with ordinary jar caps or with hot paraffin. 

Soft fruits can be used for preserves if cooked only a 
short time in a heavy sirup and then left in shallow 
dishes in the sun to permit concentration of the sugar 
by solar evaporation. This method is especially good 
for strawberry preserves. 

59. Candied Fruits. Candied fruits are confections 
made by impregnating fruit with a very heavy sirup, 
followed by draining and partial drying so that the fruit 
may be handled easily. They should be glossy or 
" glaced " in appearance, semi transparent, of the shape 
and size of the original fruit; the flesh should be free 
from sugar crystals and the surface should not be sticky. 

The process is one of covering the partially cooked 
fruit with a dilute hot sirup which from day to day is 
gradually increased in sugar content until it becomes a 
very heavy sirup, which impregnates the fruit with a 
high sugar content, 65 to 70%. The slow increase in 
sugar is necessary to avoid shrivelling and toughening 
of the fruit. In order that the shape and appearance of 
the fruit may be retained, long boiling as in making pre- 
serves is objectionable. Whole fruits, such as cherries, 
apricots, figs, etc., are punctured thoroughly, through 
and through, in numerous places with coarse wooden or 
copper needles to permit penetration of the sirup. Large 
pears and peaches are peeled and cut in half. Pine- 
apple slices from the canned product are excellent for 
candying purposes.. 

The fruit is then cooked until tender in a dilute sirup 
made up of glucose or corn sirup. Karo Korn sirup is 
good for the purpose. Use one cup of this sirup or of 
glucose to three cups of water. 



FRUIT PRESERVES AND CANDIED FRUITS 91 

The fruit and sirup are allowed to stand twenty-four 
hours in this sirup in a pot or stoneware crock. A wooden 
float will keep them immersed. On the next day, the 
sirup is poured off and increased to 30% sugar or 15% 
Baume or about a half a cup of sugar is added to each 
six cups of sirup. The sirup is heated to boiling and 
poured back over the fruit. After twenty-four hours it 









I $ 1 


W" r 


1 * 



Fig. 34. Placing Candied Fruits on Wire Screen to Drain. 

is increased to 35% sugar, or another half a cup of sugar 
is added to each six cups of sirup and the sirup again 
poured boiling hot over the fruit. This is repeated with 
a 5% Balling or 3% Baume or half a cup sugar to 6 cups 
of sirup, increase each day until a sirup of 68% Balling 
or 36° Baume is reached, or until the sirup is about as 
thick as honey. 

The fruit is then drained on a screen a few days and 
when dry enough to no longer be sticky can be packed 
in candy or other pasteboard boxes. 
. A moderate amount of glucose in the product prevents 



92 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

hardening of the fruit and the formation of crystals of 
sugar in the fruit. It also gives a glossy appearance and 
causes the fruit to remain semitransparent. Glucose 
used alone produces a flat tasting product; hence the 
desirability of using cane or beet sugar with it as directed 
above. 



Chapter xii 
fruit drying 

Dried fruit is one of the most concentrated of all fruit 
products and one of the simplest to prepare. It requires no 
very expensive or special equipment when carried out on 
a small scale. 

Fruit is dried in two ways: (a) by sun evaporation, 
and (b) by artificial heat. The former is used in dry 
hot climates such as prevail in California and Arizona, 
while the latter must often be used in climates where 
summer rains occur. Both methods are discussed in the 
following pages. 

60. Importance of the Industry. Fruit is dried on a 
very extensive scale in California, and in this state fruit 
drying is one of the largest horticultural industries. It 
serves in this state both as a primary industry and as an 
insurance against low prices for fruit grown primarily for 
canning or fresh shipment. As in other states, a certain 
amount of cull fruit is dried, but as a rule, the fruit used 
is the average orchard run. The raisin industry in Cal- 
ifornia amounts to 125,000 tons of raisins annually, and is 
the largest of the state's dried fruit outputs. Prunes, 
figs, peaches, pears, and apricots are also dried in large 
quantities. The climate of this state is dry and hot with- 
out summer rains. This permits drying in the sun and 
accounts for the size of the industry. 

In other fruit growing regions of the United States 
artificial heat is used almost exclusively in drying. 
Drying fruit is one of the cheapest and most convenient 
ways of saving surplus fruit crops. If well done the 

93 



94 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



quality of the product compares favorably with that of 

canned fruit. 

61. Gathering the Fruit. Drying does not improve 

or disguise the quality of the fruit. To obtain dried fruit of 

good marketability, 
a good grade of 
fresh fruit must be 
used. 

The stage of ripe- 
ness at which the 
fruit is picked varies 
with the variety. 
Apricots are picked 
firm ripe — if too 
ripe they will melt 
down to unattrac- 
tive "slabs"; figs 
and prunes are al- 
lowed to ripen until 
they drop from the 
trees of their own 
accord; peaches are 
gathered when fully 
ripe, but while still 
firm enough to per- 
Fig. 35. Knocking Ripe Prunes from Trees m jt handling ■ pears 

for Drying - are picked when full 

size, but not yet ripe, and are allowed to ripen in piles 
of straw before drying; grapes are picked when fully ripe; 
apples for drying are usually the packing house culls. 
The riper the fruit is, the more sugar it will contain and 
therefore the larger the yield of dry fruit will be, unless 
the fruit is overripe and so soft that excessive loss occurs. 
62. Transfer to the Dry Yard. The fruit should be 
taken quickly to the dry yard or evaporator after pick- 
ing and so handled that bruising does not take place. 




FRUIT DRYING 95 

Fruit for drying should be handled as carefully as fruit 
for fresh shipment, if the best results are expected. 

63. Cutting and Peeling. Apples are peeled, cored, 
and cut into disks before drying. Other fruits are usually 
dried without peeling. 

Peaches and apricots are cut in half and pitted by 
hand. Pears are cut in half lengthwise before placing 
on drying trays. They are not peeled or cored. Peaches 
are sometimes peeled before drying by use of a hot con- 
centrated lye solution. The peaches are cut and pitted; 
then immersed in a boiling 10% soda lye solution for a 
long enough time to soften the skin thoroughly. They 
are then passed through strong jets of water that wash 
off the softened skins and remove the lye adhering to 
the pit cavities. This method of peeling is not easily 
used on a small scale and is only recommended for large 
dry yards. 

64. Dipping Fruits before Drying. Prunes are dipped 
in a hot dilute lye solution a few seconds to crack the 
skins before they are dried. The dipping solution con- 
tains about ]/2% °f ly e or one pound per thirty gallons of 
water, for the French prune, the one most commonly 
grown. The solution is more dilute for the Sugar Prune 
and Imperial Prune, two less important varieties. The 
prunes are held in a wire basket in which they are im- 
mersed in the hot lye solution for five to thirty seconds, 
or they are carried through the liquid in a perforated 
rotating drum. They are often dipped in water or are 
passed through water sprays to remove excess lye and 
adhering dirt. The dipping checks the skins sufficiently 
to greatly increase the rate of drying. 

Sultanina and Sultana seedless grapes are often dipped 
in hot dilute i}/f/o) lye solution or in sodium bicarbonate 
solution to crack the skin slightly or to remove the bloom 
to facilitate drying. The dipping in dilute lye is also 
carried out in connection with the sulphuring of Sultanina 



96 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 




Fig. 36. Dipping Prunes and White Grapes in Boiling Yi% Lye 
Solution before Drying. 

grapes (Thompson Seedless). It increases the rate of 
absorption of the sulphur fumes. Grapes after dipping 
in hot lye are rinsed in cold water while those dipped in 
cold sodium bicarbonate solution are not rinsed in water 
but are placed directly upon trays to dry. 

65. Sulphuring Fruits before Drying. Fruits darken 
badly, unless treated with fumes of burning sulphur 
before drying. The darkening is due to oxidation of the 
coloring matter. Sulphur fumes prevent oxidation and 
darkening. In some cases, for example in Muscat raisins 
and prunes, the dark color is considered desirable; in others 
the dark color is objectionable. Apricots, pears, apples, 



FRUIT DRYING 



97 




Fig. 37. Upper View, Fruit Dipper for Prunes. Lower View, Stack- 
ing Fruit that is nearly Dry. This permits drying to finish in 
the shade, giving a more uniform product. 

and peaches are usually " sulphured " before drying. 
Sulphuring should not be excessive, because the flavor of 
the fruit is thereby injured and sulphuring should never 
be employed to cover up defects. 

In addition to preventing the darkening of the color, 
the sulphur fumes act as mild a preservative and tend to 
prevent the molding and fermentation of the fruit during 
sun drying. 




Fig. 38. Views of Drying Yards in California. In lower figure 
is shown a portion of a field of 20 acres of fruit trays. 



FRUIT DRYING 99 

A great deal of controversy has arisen in the past and 
a great diversity of opinion exists at present as to the 
effect of sulphurous acid in food products (sulphurous 
acid and sulphur dioxide are other names for the fumes 
of burning sulphur). It is generally admitted that when 
large amounts of sulphurous acid are eaten in food, injury 
to health results; but it is extremely doubtful whether the 
relatively small amount eaten in cooked dried sulphured 
fruits is harmful. Cooking drives off a great deal of the 
sulphurous acid and little remains in the cooked fruit, 
unless the fruit has been badly over sulphured. 

The sulphuring of the fruit is accomplished by spread- 
ing it on drying trays and exposing the fruit and trays to 
the fumes of burning sulphur for the desired length of 
time. The room or box in which the sulphuring is carried 
out is commonly called a " sulphur box " or " sulphur 
house." It may be a small house large enough to hold a 
small hand truck or carload of trays, or may be so con- 
structed that the trays may rest on cleats on the sides of 
the sulphur box. A very convenient form is the so-called 
" balloon sulphur hood." This is a light rectangular 
wooden or building paper covered box that can be set 
down over a stack of about one dozen trays. 

Sulphur is burned in a shallow pit inside the sulphur 
box in the ground beneath the trays, or in a container 
outside the box and the fumes are conducted into the 
box by means of a flue. To ignite the sulphur, a small 
amount of excelsior or a few shavings may be used. The 
sulphur should be kept burning constantly for the length 
of time it is desired to expose the fruit to the fumes. 

Apples are sometimes sulphured by passing them on a 
belt conveyor through a long box filled with sulphur 
fumes. Sliced apples are sulphured for twenty to thirty 
minutes; apricots, peaches, and seedless grapes, three to 
five hours, and pears, six to forty-eight hours. After sul- 
phuring, the fruit is ready for the dry yard or evaporator. 




Fig. 39. Small Fruit Sulphuring Box for Home Use. Note pears 
cut in half for drying. 



FRUIT DRYING 



101 



66. Trays for Sun Drying. Wooden trays 2x3 feet, 
or 3 x 6 feet, or 3 x 8 feet are used in sun drying fruits 
commercially. These are made of sugar pine or other 
tasteless white wood. Redwood colors the fruit. Shakes 
3" x 6" are nailed to side strips and cleats are nailed to 




Fig. 40. Sulphuring Fruit on a Large Scale in California. The 
trays of fruit on car in picture have just been sulphured in the 
sulphur house in the background. 

the ends. In long trays, one or two narrow strips of wood 
are nailed lengthwise near the center of the tray to act as 
a support. 

For drying small amounts of fruit, improvised trays 
may be used. Cloth or paper will answer the purpose or 
the fruit may be placed directly on a flat roof. 

67. Sun Drying. A dry hot climate, free from rains, 
is necessary for sun drying. Sun drying requires less 



102 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

equipment and labor than drying by artificial heat. 
There is more tendency for darkening of the fruit, for 
accumulation of dust, and injury by insects or mold than 
is the case in artificial drying. However, dried fruits of 
excellent quality are made by this method. 




Fig. 41. Muscat Grapes Drying on Trays in the Vineyard. Note 
that trays are tilted toward sun and that the grapes are stacked 
on the trays in shallow layers. 

The fruit after preparation by cutting, dipping, peel- 
ing, spreading on trays, and sulphuring, as the case may 
require, is then exposed to the sun on trays that are placed 
on the ground. The drying yard should be clean and 
as free from dust as possible. 

Grapes are turned when about one-half dry by in- 
verting a full tray over an empty one. Prunes are stirred 
or turned several times during drying to cause even 
drying. Other fruits are ordinarily not turned. 

In case of a shower, the trays are stacked in piles of a 



FRUIT DRYING 



103 



dozen or more trays each and covered with empty trays 
or with boards to shed the rain. Late in the season this 
often becomes necessary. During long rain storms or 
continued cloudy weather, it is sometimes necessary to 
use artificial heat, or the partially dried fruit must be 




Fig. 42. Sorting Dried Prunes. The partially dried fruit and culls 
are sorted out. 

heavily sulphured to prevent molding until there is 
again sufficient sunshine to permit drying. 

The fruit should not be allowed to become too dry. 
The texture of the finished product should be leathery, 
not hard and brittle. Excessive drying results in great 
loss of flavor and makes the fruit difficult to cook. 

The fruit will dry more uniformly, the color will be 
better, and there will be less danger of its becoming too 
dry, if the trays are stacked when the fruit is about two- 
thirds dry. They should be stacked so that the air will 
pass freely between them and complete the drying. 



104 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



All of the fruit will not dry at the same rate, and when 
most of it is sufficiently dry, it is taken from the trays. 
That which is not dried sufficiently is left on the trays a 
few days longer. 




Fig. 43. Pomona Vegetable Peeler. This machine is very useful in 
peeling vegetables for drying. 

In good drying weather most fruits are left four to six 
days in the sun, and about the same length of time in the 
stack, making a total time of eight to twelve days. 

68. Artificial Evaporation. The rate of removal of 
water by evaporation by sun or artificial heat depends 
upon three factors: (1) temperature, (2) humidity of the 
air, and (3) the rate at which the air passes over the fruit. 
In many fruit growing sections, factors " 1 " and " 2," or 
both, are not favorable for sun drying, and artificial heat 
must be used. 



FRUIT DRYING 



105 



Evaporators are of many sizes and designs. An 
efficient dryer should take into account all three of the 
above principles. The temperature in the evaporator 
may be raised to about 115° F. for most fresh fruits and 




Fig. 44. A Home Made Dryer for Use above 
the Kitchen Stove. A. Stove. B. Frame 
with screen trays. C. Support. (After 
Farmers' Bulletin 841, United States 
Department of Agriculture.) 

140° F. for fruit that is almost dry. Temperatures much 
above this cause scorching and severe darkening of 
color. Thermometers should be used to record the 
temperature in the dryer. 

The humidity or moisture content of the air passing 
through the dryer is exceedingly important. If air is 
saturated with water vapor it will not cause drying, re- 
gardless of the amount used; therefore, the evaporator 



106 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



cannot be made so long that the air passing through 
becomes oversaturated with moisture. A rise in tem- 
perature greatly increases the power of the air to absorb 
moisture. Thus air at ordinary temperatures may be 
saturated with water vapor, but when heated to 140° to 




Fig. 45. Small Home Made Cabinet Dryer. Can be used on 
kitchen stove. 

175° F., will again be able to take up a very large amount 
of moisture. It must not, however, be allowed to cool 
before it leaves the dryer, or the cooling will cause the 
excess moisture to condense on the fruit at the upper 
end of the dryer. If, therefore, the air is well heated, it 
will be " dry " before it goes into the dryer regardless of 
its previous moisture content when cold. 



FRUIT DRYING 



107 



The importance of the volume of the air passing over 
the fruit is a point often lost sight of in building dryers. 
Air soon becomes saturated with moisture. If it is not 




Fig. 46. Galvanized Iron Fruit and Vegetable Dryer for Farm Use. 
(After J. S. Caldwell, Extension Bulletin 27, Series I, State 
College of Washington.) 

replaced with fresh air at once, the saturated air passes 
over the remaining fruit without causing drying. If the 
air is supplied more rapidly than it becomes saturated with 
water, drying proceeds throughout the whole dryer. The 



108 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

rate of absorption of water vapor is greatest when the 
warm air first enters the evaporator and before it has ab- 
sorbed very much moisture. Therefore, if the volume of 
air passed through is very large, the rate of absorption is 
greatly increased, because the air is constantly in the con- 
dition in which it most rapidly takes up water. 

With these principles in mind, the artificial dryer 
should be built so that an even temperature, dry air, 
and a large supply of air are maintained. 

A simple dryer for home use can be constructed from a 
few pieces of galvanized coarse mesh screen. This is 
hung or placed on metal supports above the stove. The 
dryer consists of several of these screen trays placed one 
above the other at about three-inch intervals. (See 
Fig. 44.) 

A small cabinet dryer can be made of rough lumber, 
an old stove, and a few lengths of stove pipe. (See 
Fig. 45.) 

For larger scale drying, several types of evaporators 
are in use. The kiln dryer is one of the cheapest. A 
floor, usually 20 x 20 feet, made up of wooden strips with 
spaces between for passage of hot air, forms the drying 
surface on which the fruit is placed. Beneath the floor 
the flue or stove pipe from the heater is placed. This is 
led back and forth across the dryer several times to 
distribute the heat under the entire floor. A roof with 
a large ventilator completes the dryer. 

The tunnel dryer consists usually of a wooden chamber 
12 to 18 feet long and 6x3 feet in cross section. It is 
sloping. Hot air flues pass beneath it. The trays slide 
in on runways at the upper end and are taken out at 
the lower end. The entering tray displaces one at the 
lower end. This dryer is used a great deal for berries 
and prunes in the Pacific Northwest. 

The cabinet evaporator consists of an upright heating 
chamber into which the trays fit one above the other. 



FRUIT DRYING 109 

Heat is supplied at the bottom from hot flues or from 
steam pipes. The fresh fruit is placed at the top. As 
a new tray goes in, a tray of dried fruit is taken from 
the bottom of the stack, the whole stack of trays auto- 
matically dropping the height of one tray. This form 
of dryer is used in some apple drying sections. 

The air blast evaporator is one of the most satisfactory 
types. It is used for grapes and prunes during rainy 
weather in the central portion of California. It consists 
of a long narrow room the width of an eight-foot tray. 
At one end is a large air fan. Back of the fan is a series 
of very hot flues. The trays are stacked on trucks and 
run into the long chamber through side doors. The fan 
draws the hot air over the flues and forces it through the 
drying chamber over the fruit. The rate of drying is 
rapid and the maximum efficiency of the heat is ob- 
tained because of the large volume of air used. 

Specific directions for temperatures of drying, etc., 
for various fruits will be found in recipes in Part III. 

69. Sweating. Fruit dries unevenly, some pieces 
being hard and dry and others not quite dry enough 
when the bulk of the fruit has reached the desired stage 
of dryness. The moisture content of the outer layers of 
the fruit is less than that of the center of each piece. 
The moisture content is equalized b}^ storing the fruit 
in bins or large boxes for a time to undergo " sweating," 
which is nothing more nor less than equalization of the 
moisture. The sweat boxes or bin must be protected from 
insects and should be kept dry and cool. The fruit is left 
in the sweat boxes about two weeks, or until packed for 
final storage or market. 

70. Processing and Packing. Fruit dried in the sun 
usually becomes infested with insects or insect eggs 
which would later produce larvae with resulting loss of 
the fruit. Often the fruit may become too dry or may be 
dusty. 



110 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

Treatment of the fruit with boiling hot water for a 
short time will overcome the above defects. This may 
be accomplished by placing the fruit in a wire basket and 
immersing it in boiling water for about one minute. If 
it has been very dry it may be packed at once; if only 
medium dry it may be necessary to allow it to dry on 
trays a short time before packing. 

Apricots, peaches, and pears are sometimes sul- 
phured for one to three hours after dipping in hot 
water. This is often done to permit the fruit to absorb 
large amounts of water without fermenting or molding — 
the sulphurous acid acting as an antiseptic. Its use is 
not to be encouraged in treating dried fruits for this 
purpose. 

The packing of dried fruits is an extensive industry, 
requiring rather elaborate and expensive machinery and 
a variety of processes, which cannot be described or 
discussed adequately in this volume. 

Raisins are dried to an almost anhydrous state at the 
packing house; are then stemmed in a special machine; 
processed in hot water; and the raisins with seeds are 
seeded in a complicated seeding machine. 

Prunes are graded for size according to number per 
pound. The seller is paid on a basis of eighty prunes 
to the pound. He is penalized for all prunes requiring 
more than eighty to the pound and is paid a premium 
for those requiring less than eighty to the pound. After 
grading they are processed in hot water and packed. 

Dried fruit for market is usually packed in paraffin 
paper lined wooden boxes of 20 to 50 pounds' capacity, 
or in paper cartons of half pound to one pound size. 
Packed fruit brings much better prices than bulk dried 
fruit. Attractive packages are essential for successful 
marketing. 

Dried fruit for home use should be stored in insect- 
proof containers, away from rodents. Paper bags, tight 



FRUIT DRYING 111 

boxes, jars, etc., can be used. Ordinary cloth or burlap 
bags are not suitable, because it is possible for insects 
to deposit eggs through these. 

A dry place should be selected so that the fruit will 
not become moldy. 



CHAPTER XIII 
DRYING VEGETABLES 

Many surplus vegetables can be dried and thus made 
available for use throughout the year. The methods are 
similar to those used for fruits. In regions of dry sum- 
mers, sun drying may be used; under other conditions, 
artificial evaporation must be resorted to. 

Vegetables contain from 80% to 95% water; drying, 
therefore, decreases the weight from five to twenty- 
fold. 

71. Vegetables for Drying. Certain vegetables give 
very good products when dried; others do not lend them- 
selves well to this method of preservation or are more 
satisfactory when preserved in some other way, e. g., 
by salting or fermentation, etc. Corn, green peas, green 
string beans, potatoes, turnips, carrots, onions, and 
tomatoes may be dried very satisfactorily. Artichokes, 
asparagus, cucumbers, cabbage, sweet peppers, and 
cauliflower do not dry well, and give better results when 
preserved by salting or fermentation. 

72. Preparation. The vegetables should be clean and 
of good quality. Root vegetables should be washed 
thoroughly. 

Potatoes must be peeled. Vegetable peelers are avail- 
able for this purpose, for the peeling of all root vegetables. 
These machines vary from small kitchen sizes to large 
power driven peelers of several tons' daily capacity. 
Turnips, carrots, parsnips, and onions are best peeled 
without parboiling. Beets are parboiled for fifteen or 
twenty minutes, after which the skin may be slipped 
off easily. 

112 



DRYING VEGETABLES 113 

Other vegetables are prepared as for cooking for the 
table. 

73. Blanching. Certain vegetables, such as potatoes, 
corn, and beets, are improved if heated in boiling water 
a short time before drying. Carrots, turnips, onions, 
and vegetables of green color, such as peas and string 
beans, need not be blanched because it results in loss of 
color in these cases. 

Blanching is useful in preventing the darkening of 
Irish potatoes where sulphuring is not used. Potatoes 
contain a substance called oxidase which causes darken- 
ing when the cut surfaces of the potato are exposed to 
the air. This oxidase is destroyed by heating the potatoes 
through in boiling water. Vegetables that have been 
blanched before drying are more tender than those not so 
treated and can be cooked in a shorter time. 

74. Sulphuring. Potatoes turn black in color unless 
parboiled or sulphured before drying. The most attrac- 
tive dried potatoes are made by sulphuring the sliced 
vegetable for twenty minutes before drying. Any of 
the forms of fruit sulphuring devices previously de- 
scribed may be used. Turnips, tomatoes, carrots, and 
onions are improved by sulphuring. Other vegetables 
should never be sulphured because of the bleaching 
action. Tomatoes should be sulphured about two hours. 
Potatoes, carrots, onions, and turnips for twenty minutes. 
The sulphuring is carried out after the vegetables have 
been sliced and placed on trays. 

75. Sun Drying. The prepared vegetables may be 
dried on trays in the sun as described for fruits. Vege- 
tables, with the exception of tomatoes, dry very quickly. 
They should be allowed to become nearly "bone" dry, 
not merely leathery in texture. Any sort of tray may 
be used, such as those previously described for fruits. 
(See paragraph 66.) 

When the vegetables are nearly dry, the trays should 



114 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

be stacked so that drying will proceed more uniformly 
and so that less darkening of color will take place. 

Peas, string beans, and other vegetables with much 
chlorophyll should be dried in the shade. This can be 
done by exposing the vegetables to the sun on trays a 
short time and then allowing the vegetables to dry after 





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life > ^"l.v^i 




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Fig. 47. Packing of Dried Vegetables in Insect-Proof Containers. 
Sun dried vegetables should be heated to 150° F. in an oven or 
dipped in boiling water and dried again before packing, to kill 
insect eggs. 

the trays are stacked. This gives a brighter green color 
than that obtained where the vegetables are dried com- 
pletely in the sun. 

76. Artificial Drying. Any of the driers described for 
fruits under paragraph 68 may be used for vegetables. 
In large commercial dryers continuous systems are 
largely in use. The prepared vegetables pass on endless 
metal cloth conveyors or by screw conveyors through a 
drying chamber through which is circulated a strong 
counter current of hot air. The vegetables are handled 
largely by automatic machinery in order to cut down 



DRYING VEGETABLES 115 

labor costs. The dried product is pressed into bales or 
boxes after drying to economize on shipping space. 

Artificial evaporators are necessary in many vegetable 
growing localities because of fogs and rain. In general, 
higher grade dried vegetable products can be made by 
artificial, than by sun evaporation. 

Apple dryers and hop kilns can be used for vegetable 
drying when not in use for the purpose for which they 
were built. Temperatures of drying and approximate 
lengths of time required are given in the vegetable drying 
recipes in Part III. 

77. Processing Sun Dried Vegetables. Sun dried 
vegetables must be sterilized by steaming a short time or 
plunging in boiling water for about half a minute or by 
heating through in an oven to destroy insect eggs. The 
excess moisture can then be dried out before packing. 

Artificially dried vegetables do not require sterilization 
if they are packed soon after drying. 

78. Packing and Storing Dried Vegetables. Vegeta- 
bles should be packed in insect-proof containers and 
stored in a dry place secure from rodents. Ordinary 
cloth or burlap sacks are not insect-proof; but if the 
dried vegetables are first wrapped in paper or placed in 
paper bags they may then be safely stored in sacks. It is 
a good plan to hang the sacks of vegetables from a 
rafter so that mice or rats will not reach them. 

Dried vegetables may be pressed into cubes or bales. 
This economizes on space and checks insect injury. 



CHAPTER XIV 
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE 

Waste fruits, inferior honey, and other sugar contain- 
ing materials not suitable for sale or use otherwise can 
often be made into satisfactory vinegar. The waste cores 
and peels from canneries and fruit driers can be turned to 
profit in this way. Vinegar is used in enormous quanti- 
ties for ketchup and pickles in addition to the large 
amounts used as table vinegar. 

Vinegar making is a fairly simple process, provided the 
fundamental principles involved are well understood. 

79. General Principles. Vinegar making depends on 
two fermentation processes. The first is a transforma- 
tion of sugar into alcohol, and carbonic acid gas by yeast. 
The second is the conversion of the alcohol into acetic 
(" vinegar ") acid. The second fermentation cannot take 
place before the first and must follow the first. If it 
should start before the yeast fermentation is complete, 
it will stop the yeast fermentation and give an inferior 
vinegar. Vinegar manufacture depends on making these 
two fermentations as efficient as possible, and in keeping 
them separate. In the following paragraphs the methods 
of controlling the two fermentations are discussed. 

80. Raw Materials. Any substance containing 10% 
or more sugar, or a substance easily changed to sugar, or 
any fermented liquid containing 4% or more alcohol can 
be made into vinegar in the household. Industrially 
starch and distilled alcohol are also used. Fruit juices, 
dried fruits, fruit sirups, partially fermented jelly, honey, 
and spoiled wine can all be used. Watermelons do not 
contain enough sugar. 

116 



VINEGAR MANUFACTURE 



117 



81. Crushing Fruits for Vinegar. Fruits used for 
vinegar should be thoroughly crushed in a food chopper 
or fruit crusher. The crushed fruit should be placed in a 
crock or wooden barrel, for yeast fermentation, before 
pressing. Grapes and berries in small lots are easily 




Fig. 48. Fermenting Vats Used in Large Scale Manufacture of 
Vinegar from Fruits. 

crushed by the hands. Very ripe peaches, pears, apri- 
cots, and plums, are easily crushed with the hands or 
with a potato masher. Apples require the use of a crusher 
or grinder. Yeast should be added to the crushed fruit. 
See paragraph 84 on addition of yeast. 

82. Diluting Honey. To each cup of honey add four 
cups of water and one-half a cup of any fruit juice. 
Honey does not ordinarily contain enough yeast food to 
cause a good fermentation. The fruit juice furnishes this 
necessary food. Yeast must be added as directed in 
paragraph 84. 



118 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

83. Preparation of Fruit Cores and Peels and Dried 
Fruits for Vinegar Making. Cores and peels, give good 
results if two cups of water is added to each cup of fruit, 
the mixture boiled until the fruit is tender, pressed and 
sweetened with one half a cup of sugar to each four cups of 
juice. Dried fruits contain about 60% of sugar. They 
may be used for vinegar making if four pints of water is 
added to each pound of fruit. The mixture is allowed to 
soak twenty-four hours. It is then heated to boiling and 
allowed to cool. The fruit may then be pressed and the 
resulting juice used for vinegar. Yeast should be added 
in the way described in paragraph 84. 

84. Addition of Yeast and Control of Alcoholic Fer- 
mentation. The crushed fruit, diluted honey, and fruit 
juice prepared as described in paragraphs 81, 82, and 83 
must be allowed to pass through an alcoholic fermenta- 
tion. This is caused by yeast. The materials contain 
yeast that will cause fermentation, but usually the 
fermentation will be very poor and an inferior product 
will usually result because the yeasts naturally present 
are not of the proper varieties. Therefore, good yeast 
should be added. 

All containers and other utensils coming in contact 
with the juices or fruits must be clean. Never under any 
circumstances add vinegar or vinegar mother to fresh 
juices before fermentation. They should only be added 
after yeast fermentation is complete. 

If large amounts of vinegar are to be made, suitable 
yeast may be obtained from the College of Agriculture, 
University of California, Berkeley, California. This will 
be sent for one dollar, prepaid, with directions for use. 
It is more satisfactory than bread yeast. 

To crushed fruit, compressed yeast is added at the 
rate of one cake per three gallons of crushed fruit. The 
yeast must be broken up thoroughly in the juice or 
crushed fruit. This can be done by mixing the yeast 



VINEGAR MANUFACTURE 119 

with a little juice or water and then stirring the yeasty 
liquid in with the crushed fruit. 

Fruit juices and diluted honey are allowed to ferment 
until there is no longer any gas given off and until all 
taste of sugar disappears. This will be in about three 
weeks at room temperature. • 

Crushed fruits should be allowed to ferment about a 
week. This will soften them so that the juice may be 
pressed out easily. During fermentation, the crushed 
fruit should be stirred frequently and should be screened 
or covered with a cloth to keep out vinegar flies. The 
fruits are then pressed and the juice allowed to ferment 
until all the sugar is destroyed. Yeast fermentation 
proceeds most rapidly at warm temperatures. A tem- 
perature of about 80° to 90° F. is the most favorable. 
At temperatures above 105° F., fermentation ceases and 
at temperatures below 60° F., it proceeds extremely 
slowly. At 80° to 90° F. fermentation will usually be com- 
plete in two weeks or less. Because a warm temperature 
is so favorable, the stoneware crock or other container 
should be kept in a warm room, except in hot summer 
weather. 

Vinegar flies often gather around fermenting fruits or 
juices. Their presence is objectionable, both because of 
their appearance, and the fact that they may infect 
the material with vinegar bacteria. Vinegar bacteria 
form vinegar acid which seriously interferes with 
and may stop yeast fermentation. It is essential 
that yeast fermentation run to completion in order 
that a strong vinegar shall be formed. The flies may 
be kept out of barrels or jars by the use of cheesecloth 
covers. 

85. Pressing Fermented Fruits. The same equipment 
can be used as described under paragraph 29, " The 
Pressing of Fruits for Fruit Juice." If only a small 
amount (less than five gallons) of crushed fruit has been 



120 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

fermented, it may be pressed through a cheesecloth. 
Usually a great deal of the juice may be poured off after 
fermentation is complete; this is especially true of soft 
fruits. 

The pressed juice should be placed in clean containers. 
Alcoholic fermentation will continue for several days 
after pressing. 

86. Removal of Sediment. When alcoholic fermenta- 
tion is over, the yeast and coarse fruit, pulp, etc., will 
settle out. When this has occurred the fermented liquid 
should be drawn or poured off the sediment, because 
this material will affect the flavor of the vinegar. Usually 
settling will have taken place in a month after the start 
of alcoholic fermentation or within two weeks after 
alcoholic fermentation is over. A hose is used to syphon 
off settled fermented liquids from barrels; the liquid 
may simply be poured from a crock or jar into another 
similar clean container. 

87. Adding Vinegar Starter. When the alcoholic 
fermentation is complete (but not before) the vinegar 
fermentation should be started by the addition of a 
small amount of vinegar. Never add vinegar until 
yeast fermentation is complete. This is when gas is no 
longer given off and there is no longer a taste of 
sugar. This may be done by adding one pint of barrel 
vinegar or new vinegar from a grocery store to each 
gallon of fermented liquid after drawing it off from 
the yeast sediment. To fermented orange juice add 
one quart of vinegar per gallon. If there is any vinegar 
on hand from previous home made lots, it may be 
used. The addition of several pieces of " vinegar 
mother " also greatly assists the start of vinegar fer- 
mentation. 

The vinegar adds millions of vinegar bacteria which 
multiply rapidly in the alcoholic liquid and it also in- 
creases the vinegar or acetic acid so that molding and 



VINEGAR MANUFACTURE 



121 



growth of " wine flowers " cannot take place. Mold and 
wine flowers often spoil alcoholic liquids to be used for 
vinegar unless vinegar is added. 

88. Vinegar Fermentation. Vinegar fermentation 
must not be allowed to start until after alcoholic fer- 
mentation is complete. Starting the vinegar fermenta- 
tion is described in the preceding paragraph. 

The mixed vinegar and alcoholic liquid must be so 
placed that a large surface is exposed to the air. If the 




^m^^^^ 



Fig. 49. Barrel Arranged for Vinegar Making, a, Holes for admis- 
sion of air. b, Open bung hole, c, Spigot. 



liquid is in a bottle the bottle should be filled only two- 
thirds full and must not be corked. A cloth only should 
be placed over the mouth of the bottle to keep out in- 
sects. A stoneware crock or glass fruit jar can be used. 
It should be covered with a cloth only. If a barrel is 
used, leave the bung open and fill the barrel only two- 
thirds or three-fourths full. The arrangement in Fig. 49 
is very good. 

Vinegar fermentation proceeds must rapidly in a warm 
room at 75° to 90° F. At this temperature, vinegar will 



122 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



usually form in about three or four months. It will then 
be ready for nitration and use. 

During the vinegar fermentation the liquid should be 

protected from vinegar 
* diseases and pests as 
described i n para- 
graph 84. 
> 89. Vinegar Genera- 
tors. The rate of vine- 
gar fermentation de- 
pends on the amount 
of surface exposed to 
the air and to the 
- temperature. Vinegar 
generators enormously 
increase the surface 
and hence speed up 
the rate of fermenta- 
tion accordingly. 
The most common 
g type of generator is a 
H wooden cylinder 8 to 
12 feet high and about 
30 to 40 inches wide. 
This is usually filled 
Fig. 50. Plan for Upright Vinegar Gen- with beechwood shav- 
erator for Farm Use. A. Delivery pipe ingS. Corn cobs, or 
for fermented juice. B. Cover. C. rattan shavings may 
Tilting trough to distribute liquid ^ be uge(L Char . 
over false head. D. Perforated false , i • i 

head. E. Main cvlinder of generator coal or coke m lar / e 
filled with shavings. F. Thcrmome- pieces may be used for 
ter. G. Walls of generator. II. Air distilled alcoholic liq- 
inlets. I. Outlet for vinegar. ui( j S) k ut not f or f ru jt 

juices because the material would soon become clogged 
with sediment. 

The acidified fermented juice is run through the above 




VINEGAR MANUFACTURE 123 

generator slowly (not more than twenty-five gallons per 
day). It is distributed over the perforated head of the 
generator by a tilting trough and trickles down over 
the shavings. Air is admitted through air holes near 
the bottom of the generator. Heat is generated by the 
fermentation and the temperature in the generator is 
maintained at 80° to 85° F. by regulating the rate of flow 
of liquid and air supply. A mixture of one part vinegar 
and three parts fermented liquid enters the top of the 
generator and vinegar issues from the bottom. The 
time for the liquid to flow through the generator is 
only a few minutes. 

Considerable skill and experience are necessary to 
successfully operate vinegar generators and their use is 
recommended only for relatively large installations. 

A simple generator for farm use can be constructed 
of a barrel filled with beechwood shavings and fitted 
with two wooden spigots and hole at each end. To 
operate this generator, it is filled half full with fermented 
juice acidified with one gallon of vinegar to each three 
gallons of liquid. The upper spigot is left open. The 
barrel is turned halfway over several times daily, closing 
the lower spigot and opening the upper spigot each 
time. Air enters holes in centers of ends of the barrel 
and flows out the upper spigot furnishing air to the 
liquid and vinegar bacteria on the wet shavings in the 
upper part of the barrel. A form of revolving generator 
is also used commercially. 

The operation and construction of vinegar generators 
is very well described in a circular published by the 
Hydraulic Press Manufacturing Company of Mt. Gilead, 
Ohio. This company will send the above circular free 
on request. 

Vinegar fermentation should be watched carefully 
and when the vinegar is strong enough for use it should 
be placed in completely filled containers such as barrels 



124 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

or bottles. Where very large amounts of vinegar are 
made, the vinegar should be analyzed for acid content. 
The instrument shown in Fig. 51 is used by vinegar 




Fig. 51. Leo Acid Tester for Testing Strength of Vinegar. A. Water 
reservoir and graduated cylinder. B. Measuring spoon for 
baking soda. C. Bottle in which vinegar and soda are mixed. 
D. Tube for measuring vinegar. 



factories. Directions for its use accompany it. It can 
be used by anyone. 

90. Aging of Vinegar. Vinegar is greatly improved in 
flavor by storing for one year in well-filled closed wooden 



VINEGAR MANUFACTURE 125 

barrels. It does not age very well in well-filled bottles 
and may deteriorate in open barrels and tanks after 
reaching its maximum strength. The bacteria form 
acid so long as any alcohol is left. When all of the al- 
cohol is changed to acid, they attack the acid itself if 
the vinegar is exposed to air and may completely destroy 
all the acid or seriously lower the quality of the product. 
Hence the necessity for storing it in well-filled closed 
containers when the maximum acid content is reached. 
This point is determined by analysis with instruments 
shown in Fig. 51 if a large quantity of vinegar is made. 
In the household the taste will serve as a guide. 

91. Clearing the Vinegar. If the vinegar is for home 
use it may be made sufficiently clear by straining through 
heavy cloth. 

If it is to be sold, it may be necessary to clarify it by 
the methods outlined in Recipe 95. However, vinegar 
made in small quantities usually becomes clear after 
settling several months and only the sediment need 
be filtered or strained. 

92. Vinegar Diseases and Pests. 

(a) Wine Flowers. This disease is caused by a film 
yeast growing on freshly fermented fruit juices and is 
seen as a white powdery or wrinkled and easily broken 
film. It is easily distinguished from vinegar mother 
because vinegar mother is thick, slimy, almost colorless, 
and tough. Wine flowers destroy the alcohol of the 
liquid and do not form any acid. They are especially 
dangerous in fermented orange juice or other fermented 
juices of low alcohol content. If vinegar at the rate of 
one or two pints to every gallon of fermented liquid is 
added when yeast fermentation is complete, there will be 
little danger of injury by wine flowers. Pure yeast added 
to the fresh juice before fermentation, also reduces the 
possibility of growth of wine flowers. 

(b) Lactic Acid Bacteria. These grow in fermented 



12o HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

liquids producing disagreeable flavors and cloudiness. 
They can be controlled as directed for wine flowers. 

(c) Vinegar Eels. These are small nematode worms 
just large enough to be seen in the vinegar when it is 
held to the light in a small glass tube or small tumbler. 
They are not especially harmful to health but their ap- 
pearance is not pleasing. They may infest generators 
so badly that the generators cannot be used until the 
eels have been killed. 

They may be killed by heating the vinegar to 120° F. 
in an agateware pot or by heating in some other way. 
Generators infested with eels are sterilized by live steam. 
Tanks in which infested vinegar has been stored should 
be steamed or sulphur should be burned in them several 
times so that the fumes will kill the eels. They can also 
be removed by close filtration. Eels will seldom appear 
in very small lots of vinegar, but are very common in 
vinegar factories where they usually do not become 
numerous enough to require repressive measures. 



CHAPTER XV 
FRUIT WINES 

Fermented beverages from various fruits can be made 
successfully on a small scale on the farm without ex- 
pensive equipment. Success depends upon the use of 
clean, sound fruit of good quality, care in manipulation, 
and the possession of a knowledge of the principles of 
fermentation. Control of fermentation is by far the 
most important factor concerned. 

93. Red Wine. Red wine is made by alcoholic fer- 
mentation of crushed red wine grapes. The color of 
these grapes is in the skins and does not dissolve until 
fermentation takes place. It then dissolves in the fer- 
mented juice, giving the characteristic red color. 

(a) Crushing. The grapes may be crushed in an apple 
or fruit crusher or with a heavy stick or with the hands. 
Use only clean ripe grapes; never moldy ones. It is not 
practicable to make less than five gallons of wine. 
Wooden containers are necessary for good results. 

(b) Yeast. Compressed yeast or magic yeast can- 
not be used for wine. The grapes will ferment of their 
own accord, but may not give a good product. If only 
a few gallons of wine are to be made, the grapes may 
be allowed to ferment with the yeast naturally occurring 
on them. Better results will be obtained if yeast ob- 
tained from the Viticulture Division of the University 
of California, Berkeley, is used. This may be obtained 
for one dollar per culture. Directions for its use accom- 
pany the culture. 

(c) First Fermentation. The crushed grapes are 
placed in an open wooden vat or open barrel or in a stone- 

127 



128 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

ware crock. The yeast from the University is added or 
the grapes are allowed to ferment spontaneously. They 
should be stirred well three times daily. Fermentation is 
allowed to proceed until almost all of the sugar is fer- 
mented. This will be in five to eight days at room tem- 
perature. By this time the wine should have become 
deep red in color. 

(d) Pressing. The juice is pressed from the fermented 
grapes. A cider press or kitchen size fruit press may be 
used for small quantities. A jelly bag may also be used. 

(e) Final Fermentation. The wine is transferred to 
barrels or casks. These are left open until the sugar is all 
fermented. This will take place in about two to three 
weeks. During this time the barrels should lie on their 
sides with bung holes up and open and they should be 
kept full. 

(f) Settling and Filling Up. When fermentation 
ceases and the sugar is all fermented, the barrels are 
filled with other sound new or old wine and closed with 
bungs. They should be examined once daily for about 
two weeks, removing the bung or cork to release pressure 
of gas and then replacing it. This will prevent bursting 
of the barrels. As the wine cools it contracts in volume 
and more wine must be added occasionally to keep the 
containers full in order to prevent vinegar formation. 
Souring of wine is often caused by not keeping the bar- 
rels full. 

(g) Racking. When the wine has settled for about a 
month, it is drawn off (" racked ") into clean barrels, 
casks, or demijohns, and these are filled completely and 
closed. 

(h) Aging. Newly made wine is not pleasing in flavor. 
It must be allowed to age in barrels or other closed and 
well filled wooden containers for at least a year before it 
should be used. The containers must be kept full and 
closed during this time. Wine improves with age up to a 



FRUIT WINES 129 

certain point. Claret is usually best when three or four 
years old. 

During aging, the flavor and bouquet of the wine 
develop by a slow oxidation process, brought about by 
the air which slowly gains entrance through the pores of 
the wood. 

(i) Clearing the Wine. If properly made, wine will 
usually become clear of its own accord. If it should not 
do so, it may be clarified by filtration. 

(j) Bottling. When the wine has acquired its best 
flavor (after two to four years for red wine), it should be 
bottled to prevent deterioration. The bottles should be 
well filled and corked with good quality wine corks so 
that the bottles will not leak. It is also a good plan to 
seal the corks with paraffin to prevent molding. 

94. White Wine. White wine may be made in a small 
way on the farm in barrels or puncheons (180 gallon 
barrels), or in small casks. Demijohns or bottles may be 
used, but the results so obtained are not very satisfac- 
tory. A barrel or cask should be employed. White wine 
grapes of good quality only should be used. 

(a) Crushing, Pressing and Settling. White grapes 
are crushed and pressed before fermentation. The juice 
is not allowed to ferment with the skins, in this way 
differing from red wine. 

(b) Fermentation is carried out in barrels or pun- 
cheons, etc., with the bungs left open. Open vats are not 
used. The same care in fermentation should be given as 
for red wine (see paragraph 93). Fermentation should 
be complete in four or five weeks. 

(c) Racking, Filling Up, Aging, Clearing, etc., are car- 
ried out as for red wine. 

95. Other Fermented Fruit Juices. Hard cider and 
other fermented fruit juices are often made for home use. 
These may be used while still in fermentation, as " sharp" 
cider, etc., or may be allowed to ferment " dry," i. e., 



130 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

until no sugar is left and may then be allowed to age in 
wood before use. Or they may be bottled just before 
fermentation is over to produce sparkling drinks. 

The juice is pressed from ripe fruit and allowed to 
ferment spontaneously or fermentation is induced by the 
addition of pure yeast from such a source as the Univer- 
sity of California or some other reliable source. Com- 
pressed yeast can be used but may not give an agreeable 
flavor. 

If the fermented juices are to be aged this must be 
done in wooden barrels or casks for the best results. 
Because of their low alcohol content, vinegar fermenta- 
tion must be carefully avoided by keeping the barrels 
full, well closed, and in a cool place. These juices age 
very quickly and may be used in a few months after 
fermentation. 

Pomegranates, pears, oranges, blackberries, rasp- 
berries, sweet plums, cherries, and peaches may all be 
used for hard cider. Peaches and pears may be pressed 
more satisfactorily if crushed and fermented before 
pressing. 



CHAPTER XVI 

PRESERVATION OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 
BY SALTING AND PICKLING 

A great variety of pickles may be made from vegetables 
and to a less degree from fruits. These include such 
things as cucumber pickles, dill pickles, sauerkraut, ripe 
olives, and sweet fruit and vegetable pickles. 

The preservation of vegetables by salting and fer- 
mentation involves principles similar to those of pickling, 
and, therefore, this method of preservation is considered 
with pickling. 

96. Preservation of Vegetables by Salt. Many veg- 
etables may be preserved in salt or strong brine without 
causing any marked changes in flavor or composition of 
the vegetables. The salt acts as an antiseptic and pre- 
vents spoiling. There are three ways in which the salt is 
used. The vegetables may be mixed with dry salt in 
sufficient quantity to completely prevent the growth of 
all microorganisms, or only a small amount of dry salt 
is added and fermentation is allowed to take place, the 
products of fermentation, together with the salt, pre- 
serving the vegetables; or a very strong brine may be 
made up and the vegetables stored in this without 
fermentation. 

(a) Dry Salting. In this method the vegetables are 
prepared fresh as for cooking for the table. Carrots, 
beets, and turnips are peeled and sliced; string beans are 
broken into short pieces and corn is cut from the cob. 
Onions and peas do not respond well to salting. Corn 
and string beans are excellent when salted. 

One pound of salt is weighed out and mixed with each 

131 



132 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

three to four pounds of vegetables in a stoneware jar or 
in an open barrel. The salt and vegetables are built up in 
alternate layers and a wooden cover to fit inside the con- 
tainer and heavily weighted, is placed on the vegetables. 
The salt and pressure draw the juice from the vegetables. 
This forms a concentrated brine in which the vegetables 
will keep indefinitely. They should be sealed with 
paraffin after about two weeks to check evaporation of 
the liquid. The vegetables must be freshened in water by 
soaking in cold water or by parboiling before use for 
cooking. They will keep indefinitely in this way. 

(b) Salt and Fermentation. In this method a small 
amount of salt (one-half pound to each ten pounds of veg- 
etables) is used. This permits the growth of yeasts and 
lactic acid bacteria, but prevents the growth of putrefac- 
tive bacteria. It does not prevent the growth of mold; 
molding must be checked by exclusion of air. The lactic 
acid formed in the fermentation is the main factor in 
the preservation of the vegetables. Cabbage, string 
beans, sliced beets, greens, sliced root vegetables, all 
lend themselves very well to this process. In Belgium 
and Holland, it is said that this is the most common way 
of preserving all kinds of vegetables. 

Vegetables preserved by this method possess a " sauer- 
kraut " flavor which varies with the kind of vegetable 
preserved. 

The jar or barrel must be kept sealed after fermenta- 
tion is over. Jars are sealed by pouring a thick layer of 
paraffin over the fermented vegetables. This is added 
ten days to two weeks after mixing the salt and veg- 
etables. When vegetables are taken out for use the 
paraffin coating must be replaced in order that molding 
will not take place. 

Barrels may be fitted with a six-inch bung in one head. 
The vegetables and salt are packed in with the head re- 
moved and is so left until fermentation is over. The bar- 



PRESERVATION BY SALTING AND PICKLING 133 



rel is then headed up and brine of the same strength as 
that on the vegetables (one pound of salt per gallon of 
water) is added to fill the barrel completely and the 
barrel is sealed with the 
bung. As the vegeta- 
bles are taken out they 
are replaced with brine. 

(c) Strong Brine. A 
few vegetables cannot 
be preserved satisfac- 
torily by methods " a " 
and "b." Some of 
these may be stored in 
a very strong brine 
made of three and one- 
half to four pounds of 
salt per gallon of water. 
No fermentation can 
take place in this high 
concentration of salt. 
Large peppers, cauli- 
flower, artichokes, and 
asparagus, are exam- 
ples of vegetables that 
can be successfully pre- 
served in this way. 

The vegetables will 
float because of the 
buoyant action of the 
used to keep the vegetables submerged to prevent 
molding. 

The vegetables must be freshened before use. A 
convenient way of doing this is to suspend them in a 
coarse bag or colander in the top of a large pot of water. 
The salt rapidly dissolves out and is carried away by the 
large volume of water beneath the vegetables. This 




Fig. 52. Barrel or Other Container 
Arranged for Fermentation of Vege- 
tables. A. False wooden head. 
B. Heavy weights. C. Prepared 
vegetables, salt and brine. When 
fermentation is over, seal with par- 
affin. 

brine. Wooden floats must be 



134 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

method is much more rapid than that of placing the 
vegetables in the bottom of a pot of water. 

See Recipes 99, 100, and 101, Part III. 

97. Dill Pickles. Dill pickles are made by the fer- 
mentation of cucumbers in a brine in the presence of 
dill weed and spices and with the exclusion of air. Lactic 




Fig. 53. Preserving Vegetables by Salting. On right, jar with 
vegetables mixed with salt and weighted down with heavy 
rock; on left, sealing jar of salted vegetables with paraffin after 
fermentation. 



acid is formed and gives the characteristic sauer-kraut 
flavor to this style of pickle. The brine used is about one- 
half pound of salt per gallon of water. A small amount of 
vinegar added to the brine will prevent softening by 
injurious bacterial growth. The amount of vinegar 
needed is three-quarters of a quart per ten quarts of 
brine. 

Dill pickles may be made in stoneware crocks, but 



PRESERVATION BY SALTING AND PICKLING 135 

better results are obtained in barrels. Exclusion of air 
is essential. 

Fermentation requires from five days to a month, 
depending on the temperature. The finished pickles 
should be canned and sterilized to prevent deterioration. 
(See Recipe 104 for specific directions.) 

98. Pickling Vegetables in Vinegar. Cucumbers, green 
tomatoes, onions, small peppers, beets, and cauliflower 
are the vegetables most commonly preserved in vinegar. 
The processes of pickling consist of a preliminary treat- 
ment to prepare them for the vinegar and secondly, of 
the storage in plain or sweetened vinegar. The vinegar 
is the preserving agent, sterilization being unnecessary. 

(a) Storage in Brine. Most vegetables for pickling 
should be stored in brine a few weeks to remove dis- 
agreeable flavors before placing them in vinegar. Cu- 
cumbers are stored for about two weeks in a brine con- 
sisting of one and three-fourths pounds of salt to the 
gallon of water; this is then increased to two and one- 
half pounds per gallon and the cucumbers held in this 
until needed for final pickling in vinegar. Fermentation 
takes place during storage, the green color fades to an 
olive green, the acrid flavor disappears, lactic acid is 
formed from the sugar, and the texture and flavor im- 
proved. The cucumbers must be kept submerged in 
the brine. This can be done with a wooden float. Should 
softening set in more salt must be added. Softening is 
the result of harmful bacterial or mold growth. This is 
checked by increasing the salt content. Onions, cauli- 
flower, and green tomatoes are stored in a brine of three 
and one-half pounds of salt per gallon for two weeks or 
longer before pickling. Peppers are stored in wooden 
barrels, filled with a brine of the same strength as di- 
rected for use on cucumbers. After fermentation, the 
barrel is closed and stored until peppers are used in 
vinegar. Beets are not stored in salt. 



136 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

(b) Removal of Salt. The salt must be removed from 
the vegetables by soaking in cold water, or by heating 
in several changes of water to about 120° to 150° F. A 
teaspoonful of alum per gallon of hot water used will 
make cucumbers more crisp. Several hours' heating 
are usually necessary to remove the salt. 

(c) Addition of Vinegar. Good cider vinegar should 
be used. If the salt has been removed from the vege- 
tables by soaking in cold water the vinegar is added to 
the pickles boiling hot; if it has been removed by heating 
in water to 120° to 150° F., the vinegar is added cold. 
The vinegar may be spiced or sweetened by methods 
given in Recipe 107. The pickles will be ready for use 
after two or three weeks' storage in vinegar. 

99. Pickling Fruits in Vinegar. Fruits, especially 
figs and peaches, are often made into sweet pickles by the 
addition of a spiced and sweetened vinegar to the cooked 
fruit or by cooking the fruit in this sweetened liquor. 
(See Recipe 108.) 

100. Olives. The olive pickling industry is one of the 
most important of California's fruit industries. Arizona 
is the only other state growing olives commercially. 

Olives are pickled both green and ripe, although green 
pickled olives are no longer produced commercially in 
the United States. 

Olives before pickling are extremely bitter in flavor. 
The pickling process is largely one of removing this bit- 
terness. 

(a) Pickled Ripe Olives. The olives should be of 
good pickling varieties such as Mission, Manzanillo, 
Sevillano, or Ascolano, and should be ripe. They are 
ripe when cherry red to black in color. They should not 
be overripe and soft or badly injured by frost. 

Wooden or stoneware vessels must be used for olive 
pickling. Never use metal. 

The first step in the treatment is the addition of a 



PRESERVATION BY SALTING AND PICKLING 137 

lye solution of approximately three ounces (three table- 
spoonfuls) of soda lye to the gallon of water. This 
solution is allowed to penetrate through the skins of the 
olives and a little way into the flesh. The action of the 
lye is evidenced by a change in color of the skins of 
the olives and is also shown by darkening of the flesh of 




Fig. 54. Vats of Olives being Exposed to Air to Color Them during 
Pickling Process. 

the fruit. If an olive is cut occasionally during the lye 
treatment, the action of the lye will be seen on the cut sur- 
face. The first lye is used to act upon the color in the 
skins so that it will turn dark on exposing the olives to 
the air. If it goes too deeply into the flesh the coloring 
during air exposure will not be satisfactory. It will 
usually take from three to eight hours for the lye to 
penetrate sufficiently. The lye is then removed and 
placed in another vessel. The olives are left exposed to 
the air in the vessel in which lye treatment took place. 



138 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



They are stirred three or four times daily. Two to four 
days' exposure will usually be sufficient to darken the 
olives. Exposure is necessary because the lye treat- 
ment bleaches the natural color of the olive more or 
less. Exposure to air injures the flavor and texture 




Fig. 55. Interior of Large Olive Pickling Plant. 

slightly and if a dark color is not desired the exposure 
part of the process may be omitted. 

When the olives have acquired the desired color the 
lye is returned to them to remove the bitter principle. 
The lye must be left on the olives the second time until 
it reaches the olive pits. This will be in about twenty- 
four hours. It dissolves and destroys the bitter com- 
pounds. 

The lye is then removed and discarded. The olives are 
then covered with water which is changed twice daily 
until no taste of lye is perceptible. This will require 
about a week's time. 



PRESERVATION BY SALTING AND PICKLING 139 

The olives are then sterilized in jars or cans in a brine 
of five ounces (five tablespoonfuls) of salt per gallon of 
water. They must be sterilized in boiling water one 
hour. Any of the sterilizers described under canning 
of fruits and vegetables may be used. 

(b) Green Olives. Olives for green olive pickles should 
be of full size, but still green in color. They are placed 
in a lye solution of three ounces per gallon and left- until 
the lye reaches the pits. This destroys the bitterness. 
The lye is washed out with repeated changes of water. 
This must be done without exposing the olives to the 
air in order that darkening of the olives shall not take 
place. Green olive pickles should be light yellowish 
green when pickled and should not be brown in color. 
The olives are then placed in barrels or jars and covered 
with a brine of nine ounces (nine tablespoonfuls) of salt 
per gallon. The barrels or jars should be completely 
filled with brine and sealed with a bung or well fitting 
top. Fruit jars may be used for small quantities. Air 
must be excluded in order that lactic acid fermentation 
but not molding may take place. The reason for placing 
the olives in the brine is to permit lactic acid fermenta- 
tion to take place. This produces the characteristic 
green olive flavor and texture. If the brine is too weak 
they will soften. If it is too concentrated they will not 
undergo fermentation. Barrels are the most satisfactory 
containers. They should be full and closed. 

The barrels or jars are left in a warm place until 
the olives have reached the desired flavor. They are 
then removed, placed in olive or fruit jars, the brine is 
filtered, and poured on the olives boiling hot and the 
jars are sealed. No further sterilization is necessary. 

(c) " Greek " Olives. Olives may be cured without 
the lye treatment by mixing one pound of salt to each three 
pounds of olives used. The salt and olives are built up 
in alternate layers in a crock or tank or barrel and left 



140 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

until the proper flavor has developed. The olives are 
covered with a thick layer of salt. The salt destroys the 
bitterness and draws out some of the moisture from the 
olives to such an extent that when they are removed from 
the salt no sterilization is necessary to keep them. The 
salt is brushed off the olives after the bitterness has 
disappeared. This will be in four to six weeks. They 
are stored in jars or boxes. This style of olive is used 
very extensively by the Italian and Greek population in 
America. Such olives contain most of the food value of 
the olive and possess more of the fresh olive flavor than 
do olives pickled in the usual way. 

101. Tomato Ketchup. This product is made in 
enormous quantities and is used on practically every 
table. Most of it is made in factories, especially equipped 
for this purpose. It can, however, be made on a small 
scale. 

The material used should be of best quality and free 
from moldy or soured tomatoes. Firm varieties, such 
as the Stone are preferable to the watery, less pulpy 
varieties because the pulp will require less boiling down 
and will be of better color. The various steps in tomato 
ketchup manufacture are (a) preparation of the pulp, 
(b) seasoning the pulp, (c) concentrating, and (d) steril- 
izing. 

(a) Pulping. The tomatoes in commercial factories 
are broken up finely in a " cyclone " machine and the 
pulp forced through fine openings which hold the skins 
and seeds. In the kitchen, pulping is accompanied by 
boiling the crushed tomatoes a short time followed by 
forcing the juice and pulp through a fine screen to remove 
skins and seeds. These must be removed if an attrac- 
tive product is to be made. 

(b) Addition of Flavoring Materials. Sugar, vinegar, 
pepper, salt, onions (usually), cayenne pepper, and 
various other spices are added to the pulp. Paprika is 



PRESERVATION BY SALTING AND PICKLING 141 

often added in large quantities to impart a deep red 
color. The onions are added before cooking. The 
other spices are usually added after the ketchup has 
been partly boiled down so that the flavor will not be 
lost b}' boiling. 

There are several ways of adding the spices. One of 
the best methods is to suspend the whole or coarsely 
ground spices in a bag in the ketchup during boiling. 
The flavor is extracted from the spices in this way. If 
ground spices are added directly to the pulp there is 
danger of darkening the product too much; for home 
ketchup making this, however, is not a serious defect 
and is more economical of spices. Acetic acid or oil 
solutions of spices are also used. 

(c) Boiling. The pulp is boiled down to about two- 
thirds or one-half the original volume. Half of this 
boiling is carried out before the spices are added. Boil- 
ing should be rapid and burning avoided by stirring. 
Long boiling gives a dark color. There is no simple way 
of determining when the ketchup is done, except by 
taste and appearance. When it has reached the desired 
consistency it is ready for bottling. 

(d) Sterilizing. The hot ketchup is poured into 
scalded bottles or jars. Bottles are sealed with scalded 
corks. Bottles should be sterilized in boiling water 
forty-five to sixty minutes to kill mold spores. Jars 
may be sterilized one hour in a washboiler sterilizer as 
previously directed for fruits. Ketchup may also be 
put up in cans. 

102. Miscellaneous Tomato Products. 

(a) Tomato Paste. Tomato paste is tomato pulp 
flavored or unflavored, as desired, which has been con- 
centrated to about one-tenth to one-twelfth the original 
weight of pulp taken. It is used as a flavoring and as a 
base for soups, in combination with rice, spaghetti, etc. 
It need not be sterilized and can be stored in jelly glasses, 



142 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

jars, etc., sealed with paraffin. In making the paste the 
skins and seeds are removed from the tomato pulp by 
screening. The pulp is then boiled down slowly and 
finally concentrated to a thick paste on the back of the 
stove or in the sun in shallow pans. It is used exten- 
sively by the Italian population under the name of 
" conserve." 

(b) Puree. Tomato puree is fresh pulp freed from 
skins and seeds. It is sterilized in cans, bottles, or jars. 
It is usually not concentrated before sterilizing, although 
container space is saved by boiling the puree down be- 
fore canning. 

(c) Chili Sauce, Piccalilli, and Relishes. These are 
various forms of chopped tomato relishes, flavored in 
various ways and consisting of various combinations of 
other vegetables with tomatoes. Some of these are 
made from green and others from ripe tomatoes. Re- 
cipes for the above products will be found under Part III. 



CHAPTER XVII 
PRESERVATION OF MEAT 

It is often desirable to preserve surplus meat in some 
attractive and palatable form in the household or on 
the farm. Occasions will often arise where there will 
be pork or beef to salt or smoke; fish to salt, smoke, or 
can; and chicken or rabbit to can. The following dis- 
cussions on meat preservation and the recipes given in 
Part III of this book are intended to give the principles 
of meat preservation and specific directions for carrying 
out the actual processes. The preservation of eggs is 
also included with the discussion of meats. 

103. Salting Meats. The custom of farmers salting 
down the winter's supply of meat, once so prevalent, is 
now much less popular than in former times. It is still, 
however, of great economical importance. The great 
packing houses now supply cured meats to the farmers 
who raise the pork and beef from which the bacon, etc., 
is made. Preserving meats by salting is not a difficult 
process and can be carried out on the farm with ordinary 
equipment at hand. 

(a) Dry Salting. This method is used more commonly 
for fish than for other meats, although it is used quite 
frequently for pork also. The meat must be fresh but 
should not be salted until the animal heat has disap- 
peared. Frozen meats do not take up the salt satisfac- 
torily. Stoneware crocks or good clean barrels are used 
to hold the salted meat. Pork and beef are cut in me- 
dium size pieces; fish are cut in half and heads, fins, and 
backbone are removed unless the fish are very small. 
For each 100 pounds of meat, ten to fifteen pounds of 

143 



144 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

salt is weighed out. Salt is thoroughly rubbed into each 
piece of meat and the salted meat is packed in alternate 
layers with the salt in a clean barrel or crock, the last 
layer of meat being thoroughly covered with salt. A 
heavy weight is placed on the meat. Pork and beef 
should be removed three or four times during the first 
two weeks and rubbed thoroughly with salt. Dry salt- 
ing is used more often as a preliminary treatment to 
smoking than as a means of permanent preservation. 

A small amount of saltpeter and pepper is often added 
to hold the color of the meat and to add flavor. 

Fish are left in the salt without removing to rub with 
more salt. Fish improve with age up to a year. A rather 
coarse salt should be used. 

Dry salting of meat tends to dry the meat considerably 
by drawing out the moisture to form a brine. Its use, 
except for fish, requires considerable experience and skill 
to attain uniformly satisfactory results. The preservation 
in brine requires less experience and is recommended in 
preference to the dry-salting method. 

(b) Preserving Meats in Brine. A strong brine makes 
a convenient preservative solution for meats. This 
brine may be made of salt and water alone, but it often 
contains other ingredients such as spices, sugar, and 
saltpeter. The saltpeter is used to preserve the bright red 
color to meat. 

The brine used must be a practically saturated solu- 
tion of salt to prevent putrefaction. This is especially 
true of fish. Barrels, crocks, etc., must be thoroughly 
cleaned and scalded before use. Brines should be heated 
to sterilize them and allowed to cool before they are 
used. 

Pork and beef are rubbed with ten pounds of salt per 
100 pounds of meat and the dry salt and meat are allowed 
to stand overnight before the brine is added. A brine 
is then added. A typical brine consists of ten pounds 



PRESERVATION OF MEAT 145 

of salt and two ounces of saltpeter per four gallons of 
water. This is about enough brine for 100 pounds of 
meat. The meat is kept submerged by wooden floats 
until used. 

The meat should be stored in a cool place. If the 
brine should at any time become slimy or should the 
odor become objectionable it should be changed and 
fresh brine added. Beef and pork will keep indefinitely 
in this way, although in time the flavor and quality 
deteriorate. 

Fish are put down in a brine of about three and one- 
half pounds of salt per gallon of water and stored until 
used. Corn beef brine contains saltpeter, sugar, and 
baking soda. 

104. Drying Meats. Meats may be dried with or 
without previous salting, provided a dry hot climate is 
available. Venison is often sun dried after sprinkling 
strips of the meat with pepper to keep away insects. 
The venison is cut in strips about three-quarters of an 
inch thick and hung on a line to dry. Salt may be used 
before drying, but makes the product tough and un- 
palatable. The dried venison is known as " jerkey." 

Beef may be dried in the same way as venison. 

Fish is often dried. It is first stored about sixteen to 
twenty-four hours in a strong brine of three pounds of 
salt per gallon of water. It is then dried. 

Meats that have been salted may be dried even in a 
coast climate. Fish are dried in great quantities along 
the seashores of all maritime countries. Without fairly 
heavy salting to prevent the growth of putrefactive bac- 
teria this would not be possible. 

105. Preservation of Meats by Smoking. Smoke 
contains certain compounds of a creosote nature that 
act as powerful preservatives. It also imparts an agree- 
able flavor to meats. 

(a) Salting. Meats are usually stored in salt or brine 



146 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 



a short time before smoking. This assists in the preserva- 
tion of meat, adds to the flavor, and reduces the moisture 
content of the meat slightly. Smoking further reduces 
the content of water. 

The strength of the brines used with different meats, 
the ingredients besides salt, and the length of storage 




Fig. 56. Home-Made Smoke House. 

vary. Fish are stored for only about sixteen hours in a 
strong brine. Pork is stored about three weeks before 
smoking. The brines used for various meats are given 
under meat preservation recipes of Part III. 

(b) The Smoke House. The meat is usually rinsed 
in warm water after removal from the brine or salt and 
is allowed to drain before hanging in the smoke house. 

The smoke house may be merely a large box made 
almost air-tight; a large barrel or dry goods box will 
answer for small amounts of meat. This is arranged with 



PRESERVATION OF MEAT 147 

wire netting shelves to hold the pieces of meat or with 
hooks from which the meat is hung. A hole about fifteen 
inches deep is dug in the ground and the bark or other 
source of smoke is burned in this. This sort of a smoke 
house is very satisfactory for fish because the flavor and 
texture of the fish is improved by the relatively high 
temperatures resulting from this arrangement. 

Bacon, hams, and beef should, however, be kept as 
cool as possible. The arrangement shown in Fig. 56 
is well suited to the purpose. The smoke is generated 
outside the house and is conducted to the floor of the 
house by means of several pieces of stove pipe. The 
house should be tall so that there will be as little heat as 
possible. A little ventilation is necessary to draw the 
smoke from the fire box to the house. If the ventilators 
are placed just below the level at which the meat hangs, 
the upper part of the house and the meat will hang con- 
tinually in a dense cloud of smoke. The openings should 
be arranged so that they may be regulated. Dense 
smoke without heat is essential except in freezing weather. 
If the meat becomes frozen the smoke will not penetrate 
and where freezing is apt to occur it will be necessary to 
arrange for heating the house. 

(c) Smoke Producing Substances. A great variety of 
substances are used for smoking meats. Spent tan bark 
from tanneries is one of the best materials for smok- 
ing purposes. It imparts an agreeable flavor and odor 
and also gives a dense smoke without much need of 
close attention. Hickory chips and other hardwood 
chips, or hardwood sawdust give good results. Corn 
cobs may be used, but do not produce such a desirable 
flavor as does tan bark or hardwood. The smoke- 
producing material should not blaze; this can be pre- 
vented by proper regulation of the ventilation or by 
smothering the flame with moistened tan bark or hard- 
wood sawdust, etc. So-called " liquid smoke " preparations 



148 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

may be purchased. These are chemical solutions which 
produce a smoked taste in bacon or ham when rubbed on 
the meat. Their use is not so satisfactory as smoking. 

(d) Length of Smoking. Fish are smoked less than 
twenty-four hours, because they take up the smoke very 
quickly. The meat is smoked until it has reached the 
proper color, texture, and flavor. For pork, this will 
ordinarily be in one to two weeks. If the meat is to be 
used soon after smoking, a short period of smoking will 
be more satisfactory than a long one. Meat, to be kept 
a long time, must be thoroughly cured by smoking to 
prevent spoiling. 

Beef is smoked thoroughly and then hung in a warm 
dry place to become as dry as possible. It is known as 
dried beef rather than smoked beef. 

(e) Storing Smoked Meats. Cured bacon and ham 
may be kept by wrapping in heavy parchment paper 
and then in heavy wrapping paper and storing the 
wrapped meat in a cool dry place. 

If the smoke house is not needed for other purposes 
the meat may be left hanging in this. Smoke may be 
started occasionally to drive away insects. Pepper rubbed 
on the surface of the meat will also act as insect repellant. 

Ham and bacon may also be kept by placing the pieces 
on a layer of sifted ashes and covering with a thick layer 
of the same. Beef should be hung in a dry place. Fish 
should not contain too much moisture before storing. 
It will usually be necessary to dry the smoked fish several 
days in the sun before storing. 

106. Miscellaneous Meat Products. Lard, mince- 
meat, head cheese, sausage, pickled pigs' feet, and other 
meat products may be made on the farm. They are of 
less importance than the methods of preservation just 
discussed and are to be considered more as means of 
preparing meat for the table than as methods of pres- 
ervation, the subject with which this book aims to deal. 



PRESERVATION OF MEAT 149 

107. Preservation of Eggs with Water Glass. Water 
glass is a clear sirupy liquid that may be obtained from 
drug stores and often from groceries for the preservation 
of eggs. It is used in two ways. 

It may be diluted with from nine to twelve parts of 
water to one part of water glass and used as a liquid in 
which the eggs are stored. Tin, glass, stoneware, or 
wooden containers may be used. The container should 
be well covered to prevent evaporation of the water 
and the eggs should be well covered with the liquid. 

In the second method the eggs are dipped in a solution 
of one pint of water glass to three pints of water. They 
are drained and allowed to dry on a layer of flour or corn 
starch or precipitated chalk. When dry they are dipped 
in the water glass and dried as before. They are then 
packed in bran or saw dust. The water glass acts as an 
air tight seal. 

Eggs will keep a year or more by either method. 
Fresh clean eggs must be used. Do not wash them. Use 
non-fertile eggs if they can be had. The eggs should be 
kept in a cool place. 

Eggs stored in water glass will in time develop a slight 
stale taste, but will still be wholesome. They are not so 
suitable as fresh eggs for frying because the yolks are apt 
to break. They should not be used for hard boiling as a 
" sulphur " odor may develop if the eggs have been kept 
several months in the solution. For other purposes they 
are very satisfactory. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

MILK PRODUCTS 

The manufacture of condensed milk, dried milk, 
cheese, and butter constitutes a series of very important 
dairy industries. A full discussion and description of these 
industries would be entirely outside the scope of this 
book. In the following pages only that material is taken 
up which will be of most interest and value to those 
desiring to preserve moderate amounts of butter or who 
desire to make a small amount of cheese or who wish to 
pasteurize milk in a small way. No attempt or claim is 
made to give a description of commercial installations or 
practices. 
108. Sterilization and Pasteurization of Milk. 

(a) Sterilization. Enormous quantities of canned milk 
are used. Commercial factories concentrate milk before 
canning and sterilization. This must be done in a vac- 
uum evaporator and cannot be carried out on a small 
scale. Milk may be sterilized in sealed cans under steam 
pressure at ten pounds' pressure for forty minutes or for 
one hour at 212° F. on each of three successive days. 
Milk is exceedingly difficult to sterilize because of the 
spore-bearing bacteria present. There is, however, very 
little need of sterilizing milk in the household because 
it is usually not necessary to keep it more than two or 
three days. Pasteurization is, however, useful. 

(b) Pasteurization of Milk in the Household. Milk 
heated to 140° to 160° F. will keep much longer than un- 
heated milk. Heating to this temperature kills many of 
the bacteria and so weakens those not killed that their 
growth is very much slowed up. 

150 



MILK PRODUCTS 151 

Pasteurization may be accomplished in bottles or in 
open pots. If carried out in bottles the bottles should be 
scalded before filling. The filled bottles should be sealed 
with sterilized corks. They may be heated in a pot of 
water with bottles completely immersed until the water 
reaches 150° F. Maintain at this temperature for twenty 
minutes. Remove and cool. A thermometer must be 
inserted in the water to test the temperature. 

The milk may also be pasteurized by heating in a pot 
to 145° F. at which temperature it is maintained for 
twenty-five minutes. A double boiler is best. Pour into 
scalded jars or bottles. For practical purposes milk may 
be pasteurized by heating in a pot to the simmering 
point or by " scalding "; that is, heating to boiling. This 
is often necessary for the keeping of milk in hot weather. 

Pasteurized milk will keep considerably longer than the 
unpasteurized, and will not contain living typhoid or 
tuberculosis bacteria. Where there is any suspicion that 
milk may be infected with disease organisms it should be 
pasteurized; or if a thermometer is not available it should 
be heated to boiling (" scalded ") before use. 

109. Storage of Butter. Butter may be kept very 
satisfactorily in cold storage, but this is rarely available 
on the farm. The most practical method for farm use is 
preservation by salting. Butter should be kept cool, 
excluded from the air and away from the light. The 
spoiling of butter is brought about by the formation of 
fatty acids from the butter fat and the decomposition of 
the proteins and sugar in the buttermilk left in the 
butter. These changes are largely bacterial in nature, 
although partly a simple chemical change. Exclusion of 
air lessens the tendency for decomposition by bacteria. 

Preservation by salt may be accomplished by adding 
from one-half to one pound of salt to each ten pounds of 
butter. The salt is worked in thoroughly. The butter is 
packed tightly in crocks and covered with salt. 



152 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

Butter may also be preserved by adding one-fourth to 
one half a pound of salt to each ten pounds of butter and 
then storing the salt in a saturated brine (three and one- 
half pounds of salt per gallon of water). This is the usual 
household method. Such butter should be " freshened " 
by working in cold water before use. 

Butter contains casein and buttermilk which tend to 
decompose. These can be removed by heating the butter 
in boiling water a short time. The casein is coagulated 
and falls to the bottom of the pot. The melted fat may 
be skimmed or poured off without mixing any water with 
it. It is then poured in dry jars, allowed to cool, and is 
sealed with paraffin. The butter is stored until it is to be 
used and keeps well in this form. It must be salted be- 
fore it is used. 
110. Cheese. 

(a) " Cottage " Cheese. The only cheese that may 
be made satisfactorily without special experience and 
training is " cottage " cheese or " schmier kase." Form- 
erly this product was made only in the home. In recent 
years, however, it has been made in large quantities for 
sale in delicatessens, restaurants, and cafeterias. 

Skim milk is ordinarily used. It must be clean and of 
good quality. The first step is the formation of the curd. 
This is ordinarily accomplished by permitting the milk 
to sour naturally or by addition of a starter of lactic acid 
bacteria. It may also be accomplished by the addition of 
rennet, as in the making of hard cheese, but this produces 
rather a tough curd. Seventy degrees Fahrenheit is 
considered the best temperature for souring of the milk. 

The curdled milk must next be heated to coagulate the 
curd. This should not be carried out at too high a tem- 
perature, or the curd will be tough and dry. The milk 
should be heated slowly to about 100° F., i. e., blood 
temperature or a little higher and kept at this tempera- 
ture until the curd seems firm and the whey clear. About 



MILK PRODUCTS 153 

half an hour's heating at this temperature will be suffi- 
cient. 

The curd is then drained through a cheesecloth for 
several hours. It is then broken up with a wooden potato 
masher or with the hand. About one ounce (one table- 
spoonful) of salt is added to each five pounds of curd. 
Other flavorings, such as finely chopped pimento, or 
black pepper, or various spices may also be added. 
" Pimento " cottage cheese is especially popular in 
California. If a rich flavor is desired, cream or melted 
butter is added and worked into the cheese. 

Cottage cheese must be used within three or four days 
after it is made and is best when fresh. It does not ripen 
and improve with age in the way that other cheese does. 

(b) Cheddar Cheese, This is the most common type 
of American cheese. It is made from whole milk. It 
cannot be made very successfully without considerable 
experience. 

The first step is the souring of the milk to .2% acid. 
This is done by the addition of a starter of lactic bacteria 
and must be carefully watched by a chemical determina- 
tion of the acid. 

Rennet is then added. This is a substance obtained 
from the lining of calves' stomachs. It may be purchased 
also under the name of junket tablets. Rennet coagulates 
or curdles the casein. The curd is cut into cubes and left 
until the acid reaches 1%. It is then salted, pressed, and 
left to ripen. 

The ripening process is a very complex one brought 
about by bacterial and enzyme action. Lactic acid is 
formed from the milk sugar left in the curd ; the casein or 
curd is softened and partially decomposed and the butter 
fat undergoes partial decomposition. Most of these 
changes are brought about by bacteria occurring in the 
milk. 

(c) Other Types of Cheese. There are numerous other 



154 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

types of cheese. Space will not permit their discussion 
here. Bulletin 146 of the Bureau of Animal Industry of 
the United States Department of Agriculture gives good 
descriptions of the various types. This bulletin may be 
obtained free of charge by writing to the United States 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. It is not 
recommended that the making of cheese (except cottage 
cheese) be undertaken on the farm unless in a small 
experimental way and with the personal advice and 
supervision of some one experienced in chesee making. 
Recipes for cottage cheese and gouda cheese will be found 
in Part III. 



PART III 
FOOD PRESERVATION RECIPES 

The first two divisions of this book have been devoted 
to a discussion of the principles of food preservation 
and general descriptions of processes. The third divi- 
sion, i. e., Part III, gives working directions for the carry- 
ing out in the household or on the farm, of the various 
food preservation methods. Very little discussion ac- 
companies the recipes. It is strongly advised that the 
corresponding discussion in Part II be read before taking 
up the actual directions of the recipes. This will give 
a better understanding of the recipes, so that they may 
be followed to better advantage. 



CHAPTER XIX 
FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 

The following recipes contain directions for the can- 
ning of the most important fruits. 

A discussion of the principles of fruit canning will be 
found in Chapter III. 
(1) Canning Peaches. 

1. Pick the fruit when firm ripe. It should be canned 
as soon after picking as feasible. If for sale sort into three 
grades for quality. These may be called Extra Fancy, 
Fancy, and Pie grade. The largest and most perfect fruit 
forms the first grade; medium size and quality, the second 
grade; and the soft, small, and blemished fruit is placed 
in the Pie grade. 

2. Peel the fruit, preferably by hand. The peeling 
knife illustrated in Fig. 2 will be found very useful. 
Lye peeling is not recommended for small quantities of 
fruit. See Recipe 4. The skin may be slipped from 
some varieties of peaches after scalding in hot water 
and chilling in cold water. 

3. Cut freestone peaches in half and remove pit. Cut 
clingstone peaches to pit around narrow side of the 
fruit. Insert pitting spoon at stem end, cut one-half of 
fruit from pit; the peach then falls in halves and the pit 
may be scooped from the adhering half by means of the 
pitting spoon. See Fig. 2. If the clingstone peaches are 
soft or difficult to pit when peeled, they should be pitted 
before peeling. 

4. Addition of Sugar. If three grades of fruit have 
been made, add % pound of sugar to each pound of fruit 
of first grade; to the second grade Y2 pound, and to the 

157 



158 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

pie grade, no sugar. If no grading has been done, add 
Yi to % pound of sugar per pound of fruit, depending 
on the degree of sweetness desired. Add just enough 
water to prevent scorching. Heat slowly to boiling and 
boil two or three minutes. This causes the fruit to shrink 
before canning. Do not cook too long. 

5. Pack boiling hot into scalded jars or cans; fill with 
sirup formed in heating. Place scalded rubbers and 
caps on jars but do not screw down tightly. Place caps 
on solder top cans; seal and tip as directed in step 7. 

6. Sterilizing. Place jars in washboiler or other steril- 
izer (see Fig 14), with hot water in boiler half-way up 
sides of jars. Heat water to boiling and keep boiling 
about 15 min. for freestone varieties and 20 to 30 min. 
for firm clingstone varieties, such as Philips and Tuscan. 
Remove and seal. Wax top cans are treated in same 
way as jars; the wax is not added until the fruit is ster- 
ilized in the cans. Sterilize solder top cans in boiling 
water after sealing; No. 1 and No. 2 cans 10 min. for 
soft fruit, 15 min. for firm clingstone peaches; No. 23^2 
and No. 3 cans 15 min. for soft fruit and 20 min. for firm 
clingstone varieties; No. 8 and No. 10 cans, 30 to 40 min. 
Chill in cold water after sterilizing. The times given will 
vary somewhat with the condition of the fruit. It is a 
good plan to first sterilize two or three cans as a test be- 
fore canning any large quantity of the fruit. 

7. Sealing Solder Top Cans. 
Equipment: (1) capping steel, 

(2) tipping steel, 

(3) soldering fluid, 

(4) small bristle brush, 

(5) a gasoline torch or gas flame to heat 

the irons. 

(6) wire solder. 

Tinning the Steels. The points of the soldering steels 
must be kept bright and coated with solder to be usable. 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 159 

Often the steels become overheated and the coating is 
burned off. The steel must then be heated hot enough 
to melt solder readily. The encrustations of burned 
solder must then be filed off with a sharp file until the 
iron surface is well exposed. The hot steel is then dipped 
momentarily in soldering fluid and the surface is coated 
with solder or " tinned " by melting wire solder against 
the working surface; or the filed hot steel is tinned by 
turning it in a mixture of crystals of sal ammoniac and 
small pieces of solder. The steel must be kept clean and 
free from carbonized sirup, corroded solder, etc., by wiping 
with a stiff rag and occasional filing. Disappointment 
always ensues when dirty steels are used. See appendix 
for method of making soldering fluid. 

Heating the Steels. To start the gasoline torch, pump 
the reservoir to good air pressure; fill the cup of the 
burner with gasoline by opening the cock; close the 
cock and burn off the gasoline to heat the burner jet hot 
enough to vaporize the gasoline; open the cock and 
light the burner. It should burn with a roaring blue 
flame, not a smoking luminous one. If it does not do 
so, increase the air pressure and heat the vaporizing jet 
of the burner until a good flame results. Place the steels 
in the flame and heat until they will melt solder quickly, 
but not hot enough to burn off the " tinning." Ex- 
perience is the only guide. 

Cleaning the Surface of Can and Can Top. After the 
can is filled, wipe out groove carefully with a clean cloth. 
Apply lid. Clean the surface of groove and edge of lid 
for soldering by brushing lightly with a small bristle 
brush dipped in soldering fluid. 

Soldering the Cap. Clean the point of the hot capping 
steel with a cloth. Dip the steel in soldering fluid an 
instant. Apply the steel to the groove of the can. If 
solder hemmed caps are used no solder need be added. 
If plain caps are* used, a little solder must be melted into 





(4) 



(5) 



(6) 



Fig. 57. Capping and Tipping a Solder Top Can. (1) Wipe off 
groove and cap with cloth to remove sirup, pulp, etc.; (2) Wipe 
groove with brush dipped in soldering fluid; (3) Apply hot 
capping steel and melt solder of solder hemmed cap or melt a 
little solder from solder wire; (4) Turn the steel two or three 
turns backward and forward to distribute solder evenly; (5) 
Raise the steel, but hold lid down for 2 or 3 seconds by center 
rod to allow solder to set; (6) wipe vent hole with soldering 
fluid; apply hot tipping steel and seal with drop of solder. 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 161 

the groove by pressing a strip of wire solder against the 
lower part of the steel. Turn the steel around two or 
three times in the groove to distribute the melted solder. 
Raise the steel and press down on the rod through the 
center of the steel a second or two to permit the solder to 
set enough to hold the lid in place. Remove the steel. One 
heating of the steel is usually enough for six to ten cans. 
Tipping. After the can has been capped and " ex- 
hausted " or heated to expand its contents, the small 
hole in the center must be closed before sterilizing the 
can. To do this, heat the small pointed tipping steel. 
Clean the point. Dip it in soldering fluid. Clean the 
vent hole with the bristle brush dipped in soldering 
fluid. Melt a drop of solder over the hole with the 
point of the steel. With a little practice this can be 
done quickly and neatly. 
(2) Alternative Methods for Canning Peaches. 

Alternative Method A 

In this method all of the cooking of the fruit is carried 
out in the can or jar. Do not cook before canning. 

1. Make a 60° Balling sirup for first grade fruit (12% 
pounds of sugar per gallon water) ; see table 3 ; a 40° sirup 
for second grade fruit, and use plain water for pie stock. 

2. Pack the peeled and pitted fruit in cans or jars. 
Fill with boiling hot sirup or water (according to grade 
of fruit) . 

3. Sterilize in jars as in Recipe 1 for 20 min. at 212° F. 
for freestone peaches and 25 to 30 min. for clingstone 
peaches; 15 min. in cans for freestone peaches and 20 
to 25 min. for clingstone peaches. 

Alternative Method B. Use of Fruit Juices Instead of 

Sugar 

When sugar is very scarce and expensive the amount 
needed for canning can be greatly reduced or in some 



162 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

cases sugar may be omitted entirely by using the fol- 
lowing method: 

1. Press and strain the juice from ripe grapes or 
apples or other fruit available. It should be strained 
boiling hot. 

2. To the strained juice add baking soda in very small 
amounts. Stir after each addition and taste. Continue 
the additions until almost all of the acid or tart taste has 
disappeared. If this is not sweet enough add sugar to 
taste. Omit soda if juice is very sweet. 

3. Pack the prepared fruit in cans or jars. Heat the 
juice to boiling and fill the jars and cans with it. Sterilize 
in the containers as directed in Alternative Method A 
above. 

(3) Canning Apricots. 

1. Use ripe fruit that is not too soft. Grade into 
Extra Fancy, Fancy, and Pie Grades. 

2. Wash, cut in half and remove pits. Do not peel. 

3. Add 24 pound sugar to each pound of best grade 
fruit; one-half pound to second grade, and none to third 
grade. Add a small amount of water to prevent scorch- 
ing. Bring to a boil for 2 or 3 min. 

4. Pack hot into jars or cans. Seal and tip cans, but 
leave caps and rubbers loosely on jars. 

5. Sterilize cans of No. 1 and No. 2 sizes, 8 min.; 
No. 23^ and No. 3, 15 min.; No. 8 and No. 10 cans and 
jars 20 to 25 min. Count time after the water boils. 
Use washboiler or other convenient sterilizer. Chill cans 
in water after sterilizing. Seal jars and wax top cans 
after sterilizing. 

6. Alternative Methods for Apricots. 

Alternative Method A 

Make 60% and 40% sirups. Pack pitted fruit in cans 
or jars cold. Add hot 60% sirup to Extra Fancy, 40% to 
Fancy, and water to pie fruit. Seal cans. Sterilize as 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 163 

in above method but increase the time 5 min. in each 
case. 

Alternative Method B. Canning in Fruit Juice 

The method for canning peaches in fruit juice de- 
acidified with baking soda may be used for apricots. Omit 
soda if juice is sweet. See Recipe 2, Part B. 

Alternative Method C. Lye Peeling 

Apricots may be lye peeled by the method given in 
Recipe 4. It is, however, not recommended for home 
use. 

(4) Lye Peeling Peaches and Apricots. 

This method of peeling is not strictly suited to home 
use, but may be useful in larger scale operations. 

1. Prepare a 10% lye solution, 12 ounces of lye per 
gallon of water. Heat this to boiling in an iron pot or 
tank; do not use aluminum or tin. Keep at the boiling 
point. 

2. Cut peaches and apricots in half and remove pits. 
The fruit must be firm. 

3. Immerse the fruit in the boiling lye long enough 
to separate the skins from the flesh. This will take 30 
to 60 seconds. A metal conveyer is used in factories to 
carry the fruit through the boiling lye. A wire basket 
will answer for home use. 

4. Immerse the fruit in cold water after dipping and 
wash off the loosened peels. Rinse in water till all lye is 
removed. The loosened skins can also be removed by 
vigorous sprays of cold water. All lye must be removed 
or the fruit will darken. 

5. The peeled fruit is then ready for canning or drying. 

(5) Canning Pears. 

The Bartlett pear is the most popular for canning. 
1. Gather the fruit when it has reached full size but is 
still hard in texture. Allow it to ripen in a cool, shady 



164 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

place. The flavor and texture of fruit so ripened are 
superior to those of tree ripened fruit. 

2. Peel; cut in half and remove cores. See Fig. 2 for 
appearance of peeling and coring knives. 

3. Grade into three grades. If pears are held very long 
after peeling, cover with water to prevent darkening. 

4. Add Yi pound of sugar to each pound of best grade; 
and about \i pound to each pound of second grade, and 
only water to pie grade. Add water to cover to all grades 
to prevent scorching. Pears will require more water 
than peaches or apricots. Boil 2 to 3 min. and pack hot. 
Seal solder top and sanitary cans. 

5. Sterilize No. 2j/£ and No. 3 cans 20 min; No. 8 and 
No. 10 cans 30 to 35 min; and jars 25 min. in boiling 
water. Cool cans in water and seal jars after sterilizing. 

6. Alternative Methods. 

Alternative Method A 

Prepare a 40% sirup and a 20% sirup; 5% and 2 
pounds sugar per gallon respectively. Pack uncooked 
fruit, peeled in cans and jars. Add boiling hot 40% sirup 
to best grade; 20% to second grade, and water to pie 
grade. Seal cans. Sterilize as above but add 5 min. time 
of cooking in each case. Pears do not shrink very much 
in canning and therefore this method is well suited to 
them. 

Alternative Method B. Use of Fruit Juices 

Fruit juices may be substituted for sugar sirups if 
method B of Recipe 2 is used. 
(6) Canning of Cherries. 

Cherries for canning should be of the sweet varieties 
and thoroughly ripe. 

1. Stem and grade into three grades. 

2. Pit with small kitchen size pitter, if desired. Un- 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 165 

pitted canned cherries develop a slight pit flavor that 
many prefer to the flavor of the pitted fruit. 

3. To best grade add J/£ pound of sugar per pound of 
fruit; to second grade 34 pound. Add water to cover. Add 
only water to pie fruit. Heat very slowly to boiling. 
Pack boiling hot in cans or jars. 

4. Sterilize as directed for apricots and for same 
lengths of time. (See Recipe 3.) 

(7) Canning of Apples. 

Apples are usually canned for pie making, and for this 
purpose sugar is ordinarily omitted. Use ripe, sound 
fruit. 

1. Peel and core the apples and cut into quarters. 
Grading is not necessary. (See Fig. 4 for small peeling 
and coring machine.) 

2. Add a small amount of water to apples in pot. Heat 
to boiling. Pack boiling hot into cans or jars. 

3. Sterilize No. V/i or No. 3 cans, and wax top cans 
10 min.; No. 8 and No. 10 cans 15 min. and jars 15 min. 
in washboiler or similar sterilizer, counting time after 
water boils. 

4. Sugar may be added in " 2 " at rate of J/£ pound of 
sugar per pound of fruit, if desired. 

(8) Canning of Plums. 

Plums tend to break up badly during cooking and 
sterilization because the fruit is soft when ripe. The 
white egg plum is popular for canning purposes. 

1. Remove stems and grade fruit into three grades. 
To each pound of best grade add one pound of sugar; to 
second grade Yi pound. Add a little water to all three 
grades. Heat to boiling and boil 2 or 3 min. Pack hot 
into jars or cans. 

2. Sterilize for same lengths of time as directed for 
apricots. (See Recipe 3, 5.) 

3. Alternative Methods. Plums may also be canned 
by the methods given in Recipe 2. 



'166 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

(9) Canning of Rhubarb. 

Rhubarb, although a vegetable, resembles the sour 
fruits in composition. It is canned as a fruit rather than 
as a vegetable. It cooks down badly during sterilization; 
it is therefore advisable to cook it before canning. Plain 
tin cans cannot be used because of the high acidity of 
the rhubarb. Enamel lined cans or glass jars must be 
employed. 

1. Wash the rhubarb and cut into lengths 1 to 2 inches 
long and place in a pot. If for sauce, add 1 pound of 
sugar to each pound of rhubarb with a little water; if for 
pie stock, only, add a little water. Bring to boil. Boil 
3 to 4 min. and pack hot into jars or cans. Use enamel 
lined cans; plain tin will corrode. 

2. Sterilize in a washboiler or other sterilizer in boiling 
water; No. 2j/£ or No. 3 cans 10 min. and jars 15 min. 

(10) Canning of Rhubarb without Sterilization. 

1. Choose clean sound stalks. Cut in lengths to fit the 
jars used. Wash the rhubarb thoroughly and scald the 
jars and caps. 

2. Pack the rhubarb into the jars and fill jars to over- 
flowing with cold water. Seal tightly and store in a cool 
place. 

Rhubarb because of its extreme acidity will keep sev- 
eral months to a year put up in this way. 

(11) Canning of Figs. 

Figs are canned as preserves. White figs are preferred 
to black. Pick the figs firm ripe but not too soft. Handle 
carefully. 

1. To each pound of figs in a pot add 1 pound of sugar 
and 2 pints of water. Cook very slowly down to a heavy 
preserve or until the sirup boils at 220° F., or until the 
hot sirup tests 28° Baume or to 60° Balling. This will 
take at least one hour. The figs should hold their shape. 
Some varieties of figs will show shriveling during cooking 
unless the fruit is pierced in a number of places with a 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 167 

tooth pick or large needle or table fork, so that the sirup 
will penetrate. The figs will usually be more plump if 
punctured in this way before cooking. 

2. Pack the boiling hot figs and sirup into cans or jars. 
Sterilize cans 15 min. and jars 20 min. at the tempera- 
ture of boiling water as directed for peaches and other 
fruits. 

3. Figs in Water or Light Sirup. During the rush of 
the season, it may be inconvenient to make the figs into 
preserves. If so, they may be canned in water or a 25% 
sirup. Pack the fresh figs into cans or jars. Cover with a 
hot 25% sirup (1 cup sugar to 3 cups water or 2% pounds 
per gallon), or with water. Seal cans except wax top cans. 
Place covers and rubbers on jars and wax top cans loosely. 
Sterilize 1}4 hours in boiling water. Figs are very diffi- 
cult to sterilize under these conditions and require at 
least one hour at 212° F. Later these jars or cans may be 
opened and the figs cooked down to a preserve with 
sugar. The Kadota, Brown Turkey, and White Endich 
are the best of California grown figs for canning. The 
Adriatic is fairly satisfactory. The Smyrna breaks up 
badly and the Mission is dark colored. The Magnolia 
is used in Texas for canning. The Celeste fig is excellent. 
(12) Canning of Strawberries. 

Strawberries are usually preserved in a heavy sirup; 
but are also canned more or less extensively in medium 
sirup. Strawberries shrink badly during sterilization. 
Therefore, they should be cooked before canning. Use 
sound, ripe, well colored fruit. 

1. Wash, sort, and stem. 

2. Place the fruit in a kettle and add an equal amount 
of sugar by weight. Heat slowly to boiling. Boil slowly 
about 5 min. Allow to stand in the pot over night. This 
allows the sirup to penetrate. 

3. Pack into cans or jars. Heat solder top and san- 
itary cans in boiling water 3 to 5 min. before sealing. 



168 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

4. Sterilize cans 10 min. and jars 15 min. in boiling 
water. 

(13) Canning of Blackberries. 

1. Sort into two grades: one Fancy and the other Pie 
Grade. 

2. To the better grade, add an equal weight of sugar. 
Cook slowly until the sugar dissolves. Pack into cans or 
jars. To pie grade add very small amount of water and 
heat to boiling. Pack hot. Use enamel lined cans and 
glass jars only. 

3. Sterilize cans 10 min. at the boiling point of water 
and jars 15 min. 

4- Alternative Methods. 

Alternative Method A 

In this method pack the berries into cans or jars before 
cooking. Add hot 50% sirup (1 pound sugar to 1 pint of 
water), to better grade and water to pie grade. Sterilize 
20 min. at temperature of boiling water. Blackberries 
canned in this way will shrink badly in volume after 
canning. 

Alternative Method B 

The berries may also be canned as directed in Method 
B, Recipe 2. 

(14) Canning of Raspberries and Loganberries. 

i These berries may be canned as directed for black- 
berries, (see Recipe 13.) 

(15) Canning of Oranges. 

Oranges must be sterilized below the boiling point of 
water; not above 180° F. The fruit must be very ripe or 
almost overripe in order that it will not turn bitter in the 
can. A thermometer is necessary. 

1. Peel and cut in slices about Yi mcn thick. Pack 
into enamel lined cans or glass jars. 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 169 

2. Prepare a 50% sirup (1 pound sugar to 1 pint of 
water). Heat the sirup to 150° F. and fill the cans or 
jars. Seal the jars and cans tightly. 

3. Place in a large pot or boiler of water at about 
120° F. The pot or boiler should contain a false bottom 
of wire screen or wooden slats to protect the jars from the 
direct heat of the fire. The jars and cans must be com- 
pletely immersed. 

4. Heat the water slowly to 175° F. Keep it at this 
temperature for 45 min. Keep thermometer inserted in 
the water and watch the temperature carefully; it should 
not exceed 180° F. 

Canned oranges do not retain their flavor for any great 
length of time, usually not longer than three months. 
After that time they become " stale " in flavor but are 
still edible. 

(16) Canning of Grape Fruit. 

Grape fruit after sterilization in cans or jars is very 
satisfactory as a base for fruit cocktails, " before break- 
fast dishes/' etc. 

1. Peel and cut fruit in small pieces about Yi mcn 
square or of proper size for fruit cocktails, etc. Pack 
into jars; if not in jars, in enamel lined cans. Plain tin 
corrodes and cannot be used. Fill the jars or cans with 
fresh grape fruit juice which has been heated to 150° to 
160° F. Use a thermometer. 

2. Sterilize as directed for oranges for 30 min. at 
175° F. (See Recipe 15.) 

(17) Canning of Grapes. 

The Muscat is the most popular grape for canning. 
Use large, thoroughly ripe fruit. They are used largely 
for pies. Other varieties may be used. 

1. Wash and remove from stems. Cut the grapes in 
half and remove seeds if a high quality product is de- 
sired. 

2. Pack in cans or jars without previous heating. To 



170 HOME AND FARM FOQD PRESERVATION 

fruit for dessert purposes add a hot 40% sirup, and to pie 
fruit, hot water. 

3. Sterilize in a washboiler or other sterilizer at 212° F. ; 
cans 10 min.; jars 20 min. Grapes may also be canned 
without removing seeds, but the quality of the finished 
product is much better if seeds are removed. 

(18) Canning of Pineapples. 

Pineapples are extensively grown for canning in the 
Hawaiian Islands. Only fruit thoroughly ripened in the 
field is used. 

The fruit is first topped and butted by machinery. 
It is next peeled or cut to the diameter of a No. 2Yi can 
and the core is removed in the same machine. The fruit 
is then sliced. It is packed in cans, several grades being 
made according to appearance of slices. A 50% (1 pound 
of sugar to 1 pint of water), sirup is added to the best 
grade. The poorest grade is shredded and canned in a 
light sirup. The cans are sterilized 35 to 40 min. at 
212° F. 

Canned pineapple may be purchased more cheaply 
than fresh pineapple and unless there is a supply of home 
grown material, it will not pay to can. 

(19) Canning of Currants, Cranberries, and Gooseberries. 
These fruits may be put up in jars for use in jams, 

jellies, and pies. Do not use tin because of the high 
acidity of the fruit. 

1. Wash and pack in jars uncooked. 

2. Add water hot and sterilize with caps on jars loosely 
10 min. in a washboiler or similar sterilizer, counting 
the time from the time the water boils. Remove jars 
and tighten caps. 



CHAPTER XX 
CANNING VEGETABLES 

The general principles of vegetable canning will be 
found in Part II, Chap. IV. The following recipes con- 
sist of working directions only; it is therefore advised 
that Chap. IV be read before the actual canning be 
undertaken. 
(20) Canning of Artichokes. 

Use only young, tender artichokes. 

1. Trim off hard tips and stems and outer leaves, 
leaving only the tender parts. 

2. Parboil or blanch in boiling water for 5 to 10 min. 
This is best done by placing the vegetables in a wire 
basket or cheesecloth and immersing in the boiling water. 
Chill slightly in cold water. Pack into jars or cans whole 
if possible. Cut to fit can if necessary. 

3. Fill with boiling hot brine of 3 ounces of salt per 
gallon and 4 fluid ounces (34 pint), of lemon juice or very 
strong vinegar per gallon. A measuring cup or table- 
spoon may be used to measure the lemon juice. Two 
tablespoons equal one ounce of liquid. 

4. Sterilize cans, after sealing, one hour in boiling 
water and jars one and one-half hours. If the jar rubbers 
swell and become loose, they may be placed on the jars 
after an hour's sterilization; this subjects them to only a 
half hour's sterilization. 

5. Pressure Method. Lemon juice may be omitted 
in the above formula, but if this is done the vegetables 
must be sterilized in sealed cans in a steam pressure 
sterilizer at ten pounds' pressure for 20 min. See par. 21, 

171 



172 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

Chap. IV. Do not attempt to use jars in a steam pres- 
sure sterilizer. The breakage will be too great. 

6. Three-Day Method. In this method omit the 
lemon juice but sterilize one hour on each of three 
successive days in boiling water. (See par. 21, Chap. 
IV.) 

7. One-Day Method at 212° F. If the lemon juice and 
vinegar are omitted, sterilize cans for 4 hours at 212° F. 
and jars 43^ hours. (See par. 24, Chap. IV.) 

(21) Canning of Asparagus. 

1. Use tender tips freshly cut from the garden or field. 
Freshness is essential. 

2. Wash. Grade into three sizes. Cut to length of 
jar or can. 

3. Parboil or blanch in boiling water 2 to 10 min. de- 
pending on size of stalks. (See Recipe 1.) 

4. Chill in cold water. Scrape skin from very large 
stalks. 

5. Pack into cans or jars neatly with blossom ends up. 
Square cans are most commonly used. 

6. Fill with boiling hot brine of 3 ounces salt (3 table- 
spoonfuls), and 5 ounces (10 tablespoonfuls), lemon 
juice or strong vinegar per gallon of water. 

7. Seal cans. Place scalded rubbers and caps loosely 
on jars. 

8. Sterilize cans in boiling water one hour and jars one 
and one-half hours. 

9. Pressure Method. Omit lemon juice and vinegar. 
Sterilize in cans 20 min. at ten pounds pressure 240° F. 
Do not use jars in this method. 

10. Three-Day Method. Sterilize in boiling water one 
hour on each of three successive days. (See par. 24, 
Chap. IV.) Do not use lemon juice or vinegar. 

11. One-Day Method at 212° F. If the lemon juice and 
vinegar are omitted from above brine and steam pressure 
is not used the asparagus may be sterilized by heating 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 173 

cans or jars in boiling water for 5 hours. Less time than 

this may result in fatal poisoning. 

(22) Canning of Green String Beans and Wax Beans. 

1. Use small tender pods only for the best results. 
Grade into two sizes. The smaller grade will be most 
tender. 

2. String and break or cut into pieces as for table use. 
Large pods are greatly improved by cutting into thin 
pieces lengthwise. 

3. Parboil or blanch in boiling water; the small tender 
pods 3 min. and larger, tougher pods 6 min. or longer. 
Par boiling is easily done by placing the beans in a cheese- 
cloth bag and immersing in boiling water. Chill momen- 
tarily in cold water. (See par. 17, Chap. IV.) 

4. Pack into cans or jars. Add a boiling hot brine of 
2 oz. (2 tablespoonfuls), salt and 4 fluid oz. (8 table- 
spoonfuls), lemon juice per gallon of water. Seal cans. 
Place caps and rubbers on jars loosely. 

5. Sterilize cans \y 2 hours in boiling water; jars 2 
hours at the same temperature. (See par. 21, Chap. IV.) 
Remove jars and seal. 

6. Pressure Method. Omit lemon juice and vinegar 
in above formula. Sterilize in cans, only 30 min. under 
10 lb. steam pressure, 240° F. 

7. Three-Day Method. Omit lemon juice and vine- 
gar from brine. Sterilize in boiling water 1 hour 
on each of three successive days. (See par. 21, Chap. 

(23) Canning of Beets. 

1. Use small red beets of good color. Turnip shaped 
beets are preferred. Wash, cut off tops and roots. 

2. Parboil until the skins will slip easily. This will 
be 10 to 15 min. boiling. 

3. Chill in cold water and peel. 

4. Pack into jars or cans. Add a boiling hot brine of 
3 oz. (3 tablespoonfuls) salt and 4 fluid oz. (8 table- 



174 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

spoonfuls), lemon juice or strong vinegar per gal. Seal 
cans and place caps on jars loosely. 

5. Sterilize cans 1 hour in boiling water and jars V/2 
hours. 

6. Pressure Method. Omit lemon juice and vinegar 
in above recipe. Sterilize cans 30 min. at 10 lbs. pres- 
sure, 240° F. 

7. Three-Day Method. Omit lemon juice and vinegar. 
Sterilize 1 hour in boiling water on each of three suc- 
cessive days. 

8. One-Day Method at 212° F. If the lemon juice or 
vinegar are omitted from the brine, sterilize cans 4J^ 
hours and jars 5 hours at 212° for one day only. 

(24) Canning of Carrots, Turnips, Parsnips and Crior.3. 

1. Peel and cut in pieces as for table use. 

2. Place in cans or jars. Add a hot brine of 4 fluid oz. 
of lemon juice or strong vinegar (8 tablespoonfuls), 
and 3 oz. by weight (3 tablespoonfuls), salt per gallon 
of water. Seal cans. Leave caps and rubbers on jars 
loosely. 

3. Sterilize cans \}/i hours in boiling water and jars 
2 hours. 

4. Pressure Method. As for beets (See Recipe 23, G.) 

5. Three-Day Method. As for beets. (See Recipe 
23, 7.) 

6. One- Day Method at 212° F. If lemon juice or vinegar 
are omitted from brine, follow one-day method as for 
beets. (See Recipe 23, 8.) 

(25) Canning of Corn. 

1. Use sweet corn at the best stage of ripeness for table 
use. Can immediately after gathering from garden or 
field. Remove husks and silk. Blanch in boiling water 
10 min. and chill. 

2. Cut the corn from the cob avoiding the hard husks 
of kernels near cob; that is, do not cut too close to the 
cob. Scrape cobs. 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 175 

3. Prepare a brine of Yi lb. sugar, 3 oz. (3 tablespoon- 
fuls) salt and 6 fluid oz. (12 tablespoonfuls), lemon juice 
or strong vinegar per gallon of water. 

4. Place the corn in a pot and add enough of the brine 
to practically cover the corn. Heat to boiling. Boil 
about 5 min. Transfer while boiling hot to cans or jars. 
Seal cans and place caps and rubbers on jars loosely. 

5. Sterilize cans 2 hours and jars 2J^ hours in boiling 
water by wash boiler or similar sterilizer. 

6. Pressure Method. Omit lemon juice and vinegar 
from the above recipe. Sterilize in cans for 50 min. 
under 15 lbs. pressure, 250° F. No. 2 cans are usually 
employed for corn. Do not use glass jars in the pressure 
method for corn. 

7. Three-Day Method. Omit the lemon juice and 
vinegar from the above recipe. Sterilize cans or jars 
for 1J/2 hours at 212° on each of three successive days. 
Corn is hard to sterilize because the heat penetrates 
slowly and because the corn is lacking in acid and con- 
tains spore-bearing, heat-resistant bacteria. 

8. One-Day Method at 212° F. If the lemon juice and 
vinegar are omitted from brine, sterilize both cans and 
jars 6 hours at 212° F. 

(26) Canning of Green Peas. 

Peas are harvested, shelled, cleaned, and graded com- 
mercially by machinery. If all of these operations are 
carried out by hand the product becomes too expensive 
for marketing purposes. Enough for canning for home 
use may be shelled by hand. 

1. Select tender peas. Shell. 

2. Place in a cheesecloth bag or wire basket and par- 
boil or blanch in boiling water 1 to 5 min. depending on 
the size and texture. Chill in cold water. 

3. Pack into jars or cans. 

4. Fill with a boiling hot brine of 2 oz. of salt (2 table- 
spoonfuls), and 5 fluid oz. (10 tablespoonfuls), lemon 



176 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

juice or strong vinegar per gallon of water. Seal cans. 
Place caps and. rubbers on jars loosely. 

5. Sterilize cans lJ/£ hours and jars 2 hours at 212° F. 
In cooking peas canned in this way after opening the 
can add a little baking soda to remove the lemon flavor. 

6. Pressure Method. As for beets. (See Recipe 23, 6.) 

7. Three-Day Method. As for beets. (See Recipe 
23, 7.) 

8. One- Day Method at 212° without Lemon Juice or 
Vinegar. Sterilize cans at 212° F. f>Yi hours and jars 
6 hours if lemon juice or vinegar are omitted from brine. 

(27) Canning of Pimentos and Sweet Peppers. 

1. Select ripe, well colored pimentos or sweet peppers. 
To peel them place them in a very hot oven for a short 
time, until the skins may be easily slipped from the 
pimentos with the fingers. They may also be peeled 
by dipping them in very hot cotton seed oil for a short 
time. 

2. Allow to cool. Remove skins and cut out stems 
and seed cores. 

3. The heating will have softened them. Pack well 
in cans or jars. Fill with boiling hot water. Seal cans. 
Place rubbers and caps loosely on jars. 

4. Sterilize cans 40 min. and jars CO min. at 212° F. in 
a washboiler sterilizer. Pressure sterilization and lemon 
juice are not necessary. 

(28) Canning of Pumpkin and Squash. 

1. Cut in half and remove pulp and seeds. Cut in 
strips and cut off outer rind. Cut flesh in pieces that 
will go into cans or jars conveniently. 

2. Pack into jars or cans. Add a boiling hot brine of 
2 oz. of salt (2 tablespoonfuls), and 4 fluid oz. lemon 
juice (8 tablespoonfuls), per gallon. Seal cans; place 
lids and rubbers on jars loosely. 

3. Sterilize cans 1 hour and jars V/2 hours at 212° F. 
In using pumpkin canned in this way it will be advisable 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 177 

to add a little baking soda to remove the acid taste after 
can is opened for use. 

4. Pressure Method. Remove pulp and outer rind. 
Cook till soft. Pass through screen or grinder. Heat 
pulp almost to boiling. Pack into cans hot and seal. 
Sterilize 1 hour at 10 lbs. steam pressure. Do not use 
jars. 

5. Three-Day Method. Prepare and can as in (4) but 
sterilize cans l}/£ hours and jars 2 hours on each of three 
successive days. 

(29) Canning of Spinach and Other Greens. 

1. Greens for canning should be fresh. Trim as for 
cooking for table use. 

2. Place in wire basket or cheese cloth and immerse 
in boiling water for 10 min. Chill in cold water. 

3. Pack in jars or cans. 

4. Fill with boiling hot brine of 2 oz. salt (2 table- 
spoonfuls) and 6 oz. (12 tablespoonfuls) lemon juice per 
gallon of water. Seal cans. Place caps and rubbers on 
jars loosely. 

5. Sterilize cans in boiling water 60 min. and jars 80 
min. 

6. Pressure Method. As for beets. (See Recipe 23, 6.) 

7. Three-Day Method. As for beets. (See Recipe 
23, 7.) 

8. One-Day Method at 212° F. Sterilize cans 4 hours 
and jars 4J/2 hours at 212° F. if lemon juice and vinegar 
are omitted from brine. 

(30) Canning of Tomatoes. 

Tomatoes for canning should be smooth skinned and 
of good color. 

1. To peel the tomatoes, place them in a wire basket 
or cheesecloth and immerse in boiling water long enough 
to crack and loosen the skins. This will be 3^2 to 1 min. 

2. Chill in cold water and peel. Cut out cores. The 
juice from the cores may be added in canning. 



178 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

3. Heat to boiling and pack hot in cans or jars. Seal 
cans. Place caps and rubbers on jars loosely. 

4. Sterilize No. 3 cans in boiling water 40 min. and 
No. 10 cans 75 min.; jars 60 min. Tomatoes canned 
without the addition of tomato juice are known as 
" solid pack "; if juice is added, " standard pack." 

5. Canning Whole Tomatoes for Use in Salads. Peel 
as in " 1." Do not remove cores. Pack carefully whole 
in wide mouthed cans or jars. Prepare tomato juice by 
pressing cooked tomatoes through a cheesecloth. Heat 
juice to boiling. Pour boiling hot on the tomatoes in 
the cans or jars. Seal cans. Sterilize 5 min. in boiling 
water counting time from time the water boils. 

6. Canning Tomato Puree. Tomato puree is the pulp 
of the tomato minus skins and seeds. Peel as in " 1." 
Boil in pot till soft. Pass through fine screen to remove 
seeds. Heat to boiling. Fill into jars or cans. Seal 
cans. Space is saved if the puree is boiled down to one- 
half its volume before canning. Sterilize No. 3 cans or 
smaller cans at 212° for 80 min. and jars l}/£ hours, 
and No. 10 cans 1J^ hours. Puree is useful for soups, etc. 
Commercially, tomato puree is made in enormous quan- 
tities for ketchup manufacture. A special machine 
known as the " cyclone " removes skins and seeds and 
makes a coarse pulp. The pulp is passed through a 
finisher to break it up more finely before boiling down and 
canning. 

(31) Canning of Sweet Potatoes. 

Sweet potatoes are best sterilized without pressure. The 
cans must be well filled or oxidation and darkening of 
color will result. 

1. Use freshly dug potatoes. 

2. Boil in water until the skin will slip easily from the 
potato, usually 15 to 20 min. Peel while still as hot as 
possible. Gloves may be worn to protect the hands. 

3. Pack tightly into cans or jars pressing the potatoes 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 179 

down to make the container as full as possible. Seal 
cans. Place caps and rubbers on jars loosely. The best 
grade of rubbers must be used. 

4. Sterilize No. 2 and No. 3 cans 4 hours in boiling 
water and jars 5 hours. Pressure sterilization results in 
darkening and the lemon juice method is not suitable. 

(32) Canning of Dried Beans. 

1. Beans Boston Style. Soak the beans overnight in 
water. Discard the water. Place the beans in a screen 
basket or mosquito netting bag and steam in a covered 
washboiler or steam pressure retort for V/i hours. Pre- 
pare a sauce as follows: Boil together 2 gals, water; 
5 oz. (10 tablespoonfuls) salt; 1 pint best molasses; 
2 lbs. sugar; allow to cool to about 160° F. and add 34 lb. 
of butter; 1 tablespoon ground cinnamon; % teaspoon of 
cayenne pepper and 1H> gals, of tomato puree (tomato 
pulp) . Pack the hot steamed beans into cans filling cans 
about Yi inch from top. Heat the sauce prepared as 
above to boiling and fill the cans. Seal. Sterilize 1J4 
hours at 15 lbs. steam pressure or 250° F. They may 
also be sterilized by heating to 212° F. for l]4 hours on 
each of three successive days. 

2. Beans with Pork. Proceed as in " 1 " but when 
beans are filled into cans add a few strips of salt pork to 
each can. Sterilize as in " 1." 

(33) Canning of Hominy. 1 

1. Preparation. Dissolve 2 oz. soda lye (2 tablespoon- 
fuls, level), in each gallon of water in an agateware pot. 
Place white dry corn in this and boil hard for 1 hour. 
Place the corn in a wire basket or mosquito netting bag 
and allow cold water to run through it for 5 or 6 hours. 
If this cannot be done, place in a large tub of water and 
change the water often and stir frequently for 6 or 8 
hours. This is to remove the lye. Place the corn in a 
hulling machine to remove the hulls and black eyes. 
1 From "National Canning Recipes," page 26. 



180 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

This machine may be made by running a shaft through 
a barrel lengthwise. Place the ends of the shaft on 
a horizontal support so that the barrel may be re- 
volved. 

A barrel churn may also be used for this. After hulls 
and eyes are removed, place the hulled corn back in the 
agateware kettle with water and cook until tender. Place 
on coarse screen and wash out remaining hulls and eyes 
with water. 

2. Sterilizing. Fill into cans. Add a boiling hot 
brine of 2 oz. (2 tablespoonfuls), of salt per gallon of 
water. Cap and seal. Sterilize cans 45 min. at 15 lbs. 
steam pressure, 250° F. or V/i hours on each of three 
successive days at 212° F. Jars may be used if sterilized 
1J/2 hours on each of three successive days at 212° F. 

(34) Canning of Egg Plant. 

1. Peel and cut in slices. Drop in boiling water for 
10 to 15 min. 

2. Pack hot in cans or jars. Cover with boiling water. 
Seal cans. Place scalded caps and rubbers on jars with- 
out screwing them down. 

3. Pressure Sterilization. Sterilize cans 60 min. at 
10 lbs. pressure, 240° F. 

4. Three-Day Method. Sterilize jars or cans 1 hour on 
each of three successive days at 212°F. 

5. One-Day Method at 212°. Sterilize at 212° F. for 
3J/2 hours in jars or cans for one cooking only. 

(35) Canning of Okra. 

1. Wash the okra in cold water. Parboil 15 min. in 
boiling water. 

2. Cut off and discard stem end. Cut in slices cross- 
wise. Pack in cans or jars. 

3. Fill cans or jars with hot brine, consisting of 2 oz. 
(2 tablespoonfuls), of salt and 4 oz. of lemon juice or 
strong vinegar per gallon of water. Seal cans. Leave 
lids and rubbers loose on jars. 



FRUIT CANNING RECIPES 181 

4. Sterilize cans 1 hour at 212° F. and jars 13^ hours. 
Count time after water boils. 

5. Pressure Sterilization. Omit lemon juice and vine- 
gar from above brine. Sterilize in cans 30 min. at 10 lbs. 
pressure 240° F. 

6. Three-Day Method. Omit lemon juice and vinegar. 
Sterilize 1 hour on each of three successive days at 212° F. 

7. One-Day Method at 212° F. Omit lemon juice and 
vinegar. Sterilize cans 2 hours and jars ZYi hours at 
212° F. 



CHAPTER XXI 

CANNING MEATS 

Meats are very difficult to sterilize because of their 
lack of acid and because of the presence of spore-bearing 
bacteria. Unless thoroughly sterilized, there is danger of 
ptomaine and botulinus poisoning. The following direc- 
tions give good results if carefully followed. 

(36) Canning Meats without Preliminary Cooking. 

1. Cut the fresh meat in pieces to fit cans or jars. 
Pack into jars or cans. 

2. Prepare a broth by boiling the bones or scraps or 
other meat in water. Season to taste with salt. Pour 
this boiling hot into the cans or jars. Seal cans. 

3. Sterilization by Three-Day Method. Sterilize at 
212° F. \ l /2 hours on three successive days. 

4. One-Day Method. Sterilize at 212° F. for 6 hours on 
one day only. This method is used extensively by 
California housewives and was first advocated by 
Miss Lillian D. Clark of the University of California. 

5. Pressure Method. Sterilize in cans 30 min. at 15 lbs. 
steam pressure 250°. 

6. Acidified Brine Method. Prepare a brine of 3 oz. 
salt per gallon or use a meat broth and acidify the brine 
or broth with 4 oz. (8 tablespoonfuls), lemon juice or 
strong vinegar per gallon. Pack the meat into cans or 
jars. Fill with boiling hot acidified liquid and sterilize 
4 hours at 212° F. 

(37) Canning of Cooked Meats. 

1. Cook the meat in any desired way as for use on the 
table. For example, chicken and rabbit may be fried 
after rolling the fresh meat in flour; or they may be 

182 



CANNING MEATS 183 

boiled in lightly salted water until almost done. Beef 
and pork may be roasted or stewed, etc., before canning. 

2. Pack the cooked meat while hot in cans. Fill with 
boiling hot gravy, or tomato sauce, or broth. A gelatin 
broth made by boiling unflavored gelatin in meat broth 
or water is often added. This sets to a jelly in the jar or 
can after sterilization. Knox's or other unflavored 
gelatin may be used. Two or three ripe olives added to 
each jar or can will greatly improve the flavor. 

3. Sterilize as in Recipe 36. 

4. Acidified Brine Method. To the gravy or brown 
liquid or broth from cooking add 1 oz. (2 tablespoonfuls) 
lemon juice or strong vinegar per quart and mix well. 
Pack meat in jars or cans. Add boiling hot liquid and 
sterilize 4 hours at 212° F. 

(38) Canning of Corned Beef. 1 

1. Prepare the beef by the corning process as de- 
scribed in Recipe 127. 

2. Place the beef in an ordinary kettle; cover with cold 
water; bring slowly to a boil for an hour. 

3. Cut into pieces of proper size to fit the openings of 
the cans or jars. Pack and cover with a hot liquid made 
by adding gelatin to the liquid in which the meat was 
boiled, flavored with laurel (bay leaves), cloves and 
nutmeg to taste. 

4. Sterilize by any of the methods give in Recipe 36. 

(39) Canning of Fresh Fish. 

1. Prepare as for cooking for the table. Cut the fresh 
fish to fit cans or jars and pack tightly. 

2. Fill the cans or jars with a boiling hot weak brine or 
with a highly spiced tomato puree or catchup. 

3. Sterilize by any of the methods given in Recipe 36. 

4. Sardines. Sardines are cooked in hot cottonseed or 
olive oil and packed in oil. Sterilize for one-half the time 
given in 36. 

1 "National Canning Recipes," page 55. 



184 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

5. Salmon. Salmon may be canned as described in 
(1), (2), and (3) but usually the fresh fish is packed 
tightly into cans and no liquid is added. The cans are 
heated in steam for an hour before sealing. The cans are 
then sealed and sterilized at 15 lbs. pressure 250° F. for 
\y 2 hours or for 5 hours at 212° F. 

6. By Acidified Brine. Pack the fresh fish into cans 
rather loosely. Prepare a brine of 3 oz. salt (3 table- 
spoonfuls), and 5 oz. (10 tablespoonfuls) lemon juice per 
gallon. Heat to boiling and fill jars or cans. Sterilize at 
212° F. for 4 hours and seal. Instead of brine, tomato 
puree may be added. 

(40) Canning of Kippered Fish. 

1. Soak the fresh fish in a strong brine (2 lbs. per gal- 
lon), overnight. Smoke with spent tan bark smoke or 
smoke from hard wood as described in Recipe 136 for 
about 8 hours. 

2. Pack into cans and fill with hot water. Sterilize as 
described in Recipe 36. 

Small fish such as herring, smelt, sardines, etc., are 
excellent prepared in this way. 



CHAPTER XXII 
RECIPES FOR FRUIT JUICES 

The most important step in the preparation of fruit 
juices is the sterilization of the juice. Temperatures 
should be used which will sterilize the juices without 
imparting a cooked taste. The recipes include direc- 
tions for the preparation of the fruit juices that have 
been found by experience to be satisfactory beverages. 
Certain fruits such as peaches, apricots, and prunes, 
do not give satisfactory juices and are therefore omitted. 
(41) Apple Juice. 

Apples for the production of juice should possess a 
marked flavor. Winesap, Northern Spy, Gravenstein, 
Newtown Pippin, are all good for this purpose. Use 
clean, sound fruit and not wormy culls. A thermometer 
that may be immersed in the juice or water will be neces- 
sary. A dairy thermometer reading to 185° F. or higher 
will answer the purpose. See Chap. VII for description 
of crushers and presses. 

1. Crush or grind the fruit and press out the juice. 
If the fruit is heated to 150° to 160° F. (not above 160° F.) 
for a few minutes it will press more easily. Heat the 
juice to 150° F. in a pot. 

2. Strain or filter the juice through a jelly bag or 
other filtering device. It is usually desirable to strain 
the juice twice. 

3. Fill the juice into bottles, allowing a space of about 
\]/2 inches in the necks of the bottles for expansion of 
the juice during sterilization. Crown finish bottles are 
best if any large amount of juice is to be put up. 

4. Cork the bottles with corks previously sterilized 

185 



186 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

for 10 min. in boiling water. Tie the corks down with a 
string to hold them in the bottles during sterilization. 
If crown caps and bottles are used, place the caps on the 
bottles with a crown bottle capping machine. (See 
Fig. 24.) 

5. Pasteurization. Lay the bottles in a horizontal 
position on the false wooden' bottom of a washboiler 
or large pot. Fill the boiler or pot with water. Heat 
the water slowly until a thermometer held in the water 
registers 175° F. Maintain this temperature for 20 min. 
(See Fig. 25.) For larger scale pasteurization a large 
wooden vat with false bottom and heated with steam 
coils may be used. The washboiler or other pasteurizer 
may be filled full of bottles so long as the water com- 
pletely covers them. 

6. Paraffining the Corks. As soon as the bottles are 
removed, dip the ends of necks and corks in melted 
paraffin. Dip again when the bottles are cold. This pre- 
vents molding. Dipping is no't necessary for Crown Caps. 

7. Canning Apple Juice. The strained apple juice 
may also be pasteurized in cans. Enamel lined cans are 
safer to use than plain tin lined cans because of the 
action of the juice on tin. Fill the cans with juice. Seal 
them. Pasteurize as described above for bottles. Solder 
top cans previously described, or sanitary cans that may 
be sealed with a small hand power capping machine may 
be used. 

(42) Red Grape Juice. 

1. Varieties of Grapes. Red grape juice should have 
a pleasing and pronounced flavor in addition to a deep 
red color and tart taste. Practically none of the Euro- 
pean varieties of red grapes grown in the United States 
possess all of these characteristics. They are, however, 
found in Eastern varieties. They may also be obtained 
from European varieties if two varieties of European 
grapes are mixed or their juices blended. 



RECIPES FOR FRUIT JUICES 187 

An excellent combination of European varieties is 
made of equal quantities of Muscat and any good va- 
riety of red wine grape. The Muscat furnishes flavor. 
Petite Serah, Zinfandel, Carignarne and Mataro or other 
common variety of red wine grape may be used for color 
and acid. Better varieties for this purpose are Barbera 
St. Macaire, and Refosco. The Muscat is a large white 
raisin and shipping grape of very pronounced flavor. 
It is grown very extensively in California. The other 
varieties are red wine grapes grown in California. Any 
Eastern variety of good color may be used without the 
addition of red wine grapes. Concord and Isabella are 
both good varieties. 

2. Picking. The grapes should not be too ripe. If a 
Balling sugar tester is available, test the grapes from 
time to time during ripening. Muscat grapes should be 
picked at about 22% sugar when tested with the Balling 
saccharometer; red grapes at 18% to 20%, that is, when 
they are still quite acid or tart. 

3. Crushing. Crush thoroughly. This can be done 
in an agateware pot with a potato masher or with the 
hands. If Muscats are used, mix with an equal amount 
of some red wine grape. 

4. Heating to Extract Color. Heat the crushed grapes 
with a thermometer inserted until a temperature of 
140° F. is reached. Stir the grapes often. Remove the 
heated grapes from the stove and allow to stand in an 
agateware or aluminum pot overnight. On a large scale 
the grapes may be crushed in a hand power grape 
crusher (see Fig. 22), and heated in a wooden vat by 
means of a tin steam coil or in a large tin lined or alum- 
inum steam kettle. Both methods are used commer- 
cially. The juice may also be heated after pressing 
from the grapes and then returned hot to the grapes to 
remove the color. 

5. Pressing. Press the grapes after they have stood 



188 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

overnight as directed above. Small quantities may be 
pressed through a jelly bag or flour sack. A ciderpress 
(see Fig. 22), may be used for larger quantities. 

6. Filtering. As directed for apple juice, Recipe 41. 

7. Bottling and Pasteurizing. As for apple juice. 
Grape juice may also be pasteurized in cans to good ad- 
vantage. 

(43) Loganberry, Blackberry, and Raspberry Juices. 

1. Use ripe well colored berries. Crush thoroughly. 

2. Heat in an agateware or aluminum pot to 150° to 
160° F. with a thermometer inserted. 

3. Press hot through a bag or press. Strain several 
times until fairly clear. 

4. To each gallon of loganberry or blackberry juice, 
add 2 lbs. of sugar. To each gallon of raspberry juice, 
add 2 lbs. of sugar and 1 pt. of lemon juice. 

5. Bottle, and pasteurize as for apple juice. 

6. The juice is diluted with from one to two cups of 
water to each cup of juice before serving. Loganberry 
juice has become one of the most popular fruit juice 
beverages of the United States. 

(44) Lemon Juice. 

Lemon juice does not retain its flavor well after pas- 
teurizing. Cull lemons and " juice " lemons may often 
be obtained from lemon orchards or packing houses very 
cheaply. 

1. Cut the lemons in half. Remove the pulp and juice 
in a lemon squeezer or on a glass lemon cone. Strain out 
coarse pulp. 

2. Bottle and pasteurize as directed for apple juice. 
(Recipe 41.) 

Lemon juice develops a " limey " or " stale " flavor 
in time but is still good for lemonade. 

(45) Orange Juice. 

1. Use ripe fruit. Fruit at the beginning of the season 
will make a bitter juice. 



RECIPES FOR FRUIT JUICES 189 

2. Peel the fruit to remove oil cells. Crush and press 
out juice. Or cut the whole oranges in half and remove 
pulp and juice on an orange cone. 

3. Strain through a cheesecloth. Do not remove all 
the pulp by straining because it contains the flavor. 
Do not allow oil from the skins to get into the juice 
because this in time becomes stale in flavor. 

4. Bottle and pasteurize as for apple juice. (See Re- 
cipe 41.) 

Orange juice retains its flavor only a short time, not 
more than two or three months and is not very satisfac- 
tory as a bottled juice. 

(46) Orange-Lemon Juice. 

1. Mix 1 pint of lemon juice with each gallon of orange 
juice. Add 2 lbs. of sugar to each gallon. 

2. Bottle and pasteurize as directed for apple juice. 
(Recipe 41.) To serve this juice, dilute each cup of 
juice with 1 or 2 cupfuls of water. 

This juice retains its flavor much better than ordinary 
orange juice. 

(47) Grape Fruit Juice. 

1. Cut the fruit in half and remove pulp and juice on 
a glass cone. 

2. Strain through cheesecloth. 

3. Heat in an agateware pot to 175° F. and fill into 
scalded bottles, filling them full. 

4. Cork and tie down the corks. 

5. Place bottles in water previously heated to 175° F. 
and keep at 175° F. for 20 min. 

6. Remove bottles and seal with paraffin. This 
method removes the air from the bottles and prevents 
darkening of the juice, which would otherwise take 
place. 

Grape fruit juice is the most satisfactory of all citrus 
fruit juices. A great deal of this is now bottled in Florida 
for sale. 



190 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

(48) Pomegranate Juice. 

1. Choose well colored ripe fruit. Cut fruit in half 
and remove kernels. Be careful not to get any of rind 
or pulp mixed with the kernels. 

2. Crush the kernels, press out the juice and heat to 
150° F. 

3. Allow the juice to stand overnight. Strain until 
fairly clear. 

4. Add 1 lb. of sugar to each gallon of juice. 

5. Bottle and pasteurize as directed for apple juice. 
(See Recipe 41). 

(49) Pineapple Juice. 

1. Use well ripened fruit. Remove butts and rinds. 
Crush the pulp and press out the juice. 

'2. Heat the juice to 150° to 160° F. in an agateware 
or aluminum pot. Allow to stand overnight. Filter. 

3. Bottle and pasteurize as directed for apple juice. 

(50) Clarification of Fruit Juices. 

In addition to filtration, fruit juices may be made 
clear by the addition of various substances which will 
coagulate and settle, carrying with them to the bottom 
of the container, the material which causes the cloudi- 
ness. Clay, casein, and the white of egg are the most 
suitable materials for this purpose. Clay and casein 
are coagulated by the acid of the fruit juice. Egg white 
must be coagulated by heating the juice. 

1. Clarification with Clay. Prepare a solution of good 
grade of clay by soaking 1 lb. of dry clay in each gallon of 
water. (A clay known as Spanish clay is considered best 
for this purpose, it being a medium grade of potters' 
clay.) The clay is soaked for about TO days and then 
worked with the hands until it forms a smooth thin mud 
with the water. 

To clarify apple juice with clay, add 1 pint of the 
thoroughly mixed clay to each 10 pints of juice and 
heat with stirring to 150° F. Let stand overnight. 



RECIPES FOR FRUIT JUICES 191 

The next morning pour off the clear juice and filter the 
sediment. The juice is then bottled and pasteurized as 
directed for unclarified juice. If clarification is im- 
perfect, use more clay. 

For grape juice, use ^4 pint of the clay to each 10 pints 
of juice; other juices, 1 pint to 10 of juice and proceed 
as with apple juice. Occasionally, the juice will not 
become clear with this amount of clay and more must 
be added. 

2. Clarification with Casein. Casein may be bought 
through a drug store. It comes as a granular powder. 
To dissolve it, add to each 3 oz. by weight of the casein, 
1 tablespoonful of sal soda and 1 pint of water. Boil till 
dissolved and then add 7 pints of water. 

Casein is used for grape juice only. To each 10 gal- 
lons of juice, add }4 gallon of the casein solution. Heat 
to 150° F.; allow to stand overnight; pour off clear juice 
and filter the sediment. 

3. Clarification by Combined Use of Casein and Clay. 
This combination gives good results with grape juice. 
Add Yi gallon of the casein solution and Y2 gallon of 
the clay solution to each 10 gallons of juice and pro- 
ceed as in " 1." 

4. Clarification with Egg White. Mix the white of 
1 egg with a half pint of water. Add this to each gallon 
of grape juice. Heat to 175° F. and proceed as above. 
Egg white gives good results with grape juice but is not 
satisfactory for most other juices. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

SIRUPS 

Sirups for table use and for cooking purposes may be 
made in the kitchen or in a small way on the farm with 
the materials found at hand or constructed at small ex- 
pense. Usually, these home made sirups will not be as 
light colored as the factory made products but will be 
of pleasing flavor, if carefully prepared. Grapes and 
apples are especially well suited to the manufacture of 
sirups. Sorghum is also excellent. The general princi- 
ples of sirup manufacture will be found in Chapter VIII. 
(51) Fruit Sirups for Cooking Purposes. 

1. Crush the fruit and press out the juice. Apples and 
berries may be heated to boiling after crushing to facil- 
itate extraction of the juice. 

2. Heat the pressed juice to boiling and filter through 
a jelly bag or other form of filter until clear. The juice 
may also be clarified by methods described in Recipe 50. 
This will give a clearer and more attractive sirup. 

3. Boil the juice down rapidly in a shallow pan. Long 
boiling causes the sirup to be dark colored and of poor 
flavor. The hot sirup should finally test 63% Balling 
or 35° Baume or must be boiled until it becomes of the 
desired consistency. 

4. Pack the sirup boiling hot into scalded jars or bottles 
and seal at once. Sirup that tests 63° Balling hot or 
68° Balling cold will keep without packing hot in scalded 
jars or bottles. The sugar test is not necessary if the 
sirup is sealed hot. 

Sirups made as above are suitable for use in mince- 
meat etc., but are somewhat too sour for table use. 

192 



SIRUPS 193 

Grapes and apples are the most suitable fruits for this 
purpose. 

(52) Fruit Sirups for Table Use. 

1. Clarify the fruit juice. To do this, heat to boiling 
and strain till clear or clarify according to Recipe 50. 

2. Divide into two lots representing \i and % of the 
juice respectively. 

3. To % of the juice add 2 oz. (3 tablespoonfuls) of 
precipitated chalk per gallon. Heat to boiling and allow 
to stand overnight. Filter through a jelly bag to remove 
the chalk. The juice may also be treated with baking 
soda instead of chalk. Add the soda in small amounts 
until there is no longer any acid taste. Do not add too 
much soda. 

4. To the filtered juice add the J4 of untreated juice. 
Boil the juice down to a sirup and seal boiling hot in 
bottles or jars. This sirup is less acid than that made by 
the preceding recipe and can be used on griddle cakes, etc. 

Precipitated chalk may be bought from any drug 
store. Ground limestone may also be used. It is harmless. 

(53) Fruit Sirups by Sun Evaporation. (See Chap. VIII, 
par. 35.) 

1. Crush the fruit, press out the juice and strain or 
filter it until clear. 

2. Place the juice in a shallow pan or make a shallow 
wooden water-tight trough. Place whole apparatus in a 
sunny place. Hang from a clothesline or other support 
above the container several strips of cheesecloth. (See 
Fig. 29 for diagram of such an arrangement.) Dip the 
cloths in the juice and hang them above the pan or 
trough. In a few minutes the juice will dry to a sirup on 
the cloth. Dip them in the juice; wring out the sirup 
into the juice; dip again and hang up to dry. Repeat this 
until the sirup reaches 65% to 68% Balling or 35% to 
37% Baume. (See Chap. II, par. 11, for use of these 
testers.) Store in bottles or jars. 



194 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

This sirup will have a great deal of the fresh fruit 
flavor and may be diluted as a beverage or may be used 
in cooking. Sirups for table use may be made in a 
similar way by modifying Recipe 52 accordingly. 

(54) Fruit Sirups made by the Addition of Sugar. 
Highly flavored and tart juices may often be sweetened 

with sugar to give heavy sirups suitable for use in soda 
fountains or as bases for home made beverages. 

1. Lemon, Orange and Grape Fruit Sirups. Grate off 
the oil cells from 3^2 doz. fruits. To the gratings add 
2Y 2 lbs. of sugar and 1 pint of the juice of the fruit used. 
Warm until sugar dissolves. Stir and allow to stand 
with occasional stirring for three or four days. Press 
through a cloth to remove gratings. 

2. Pomegranate, red grape juice, strawberry, logan- 
berry, raspberry, and blackberry juices may be made by 
adding 1% lbs. sugar to each pint of juice. This sirup 
will keep without sterilization. 

(55) a. Sorghum Sirup. Home Recipe. 

1. Crush the green sugar sorghum canes. A food 
chopper may be used for small scale work; for larger 
scale work a cane mill will be needed. The ground cane 
may be boiled with a small amount of water and pressed 
a second time. 

2. Heat the juice to boiling and strain until clear. 

3. Boil down until the sirup will test 63% hot or 68% 
Balling cold, or until of desired consistency. Seal hot in 
scalded jars, bottles, or cans. 

(55) b. Manufacture of Sorghum on Small Commercial 
Scale. 
1. Equipment. Small horse power mill (see Fig.); 
galvanized iron or copper evaporating pan 8 to 10 ft. 
long (see Fig.); portable furnace for pan; settling pan at 
crusher about 6 to 8 ft. long to permit settling of juice 
(this pan may be made of galvanized iron to receive 
juice at upper end of pan and to allow settled juice to 




Fig. 58. Horse Power Sorghum or Cane Mill. (Courtesy Blymer 
Iron Works.) 



196 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

flow out at lower end into a settling tank) ; settling tank 
or barrel of 50 gals, capacity for fresh juice; two open 
50 gal. barrels; skimmer for use during boiling of sirup; 
10 or 15 gal. open barrels or tubs with spigot, to be placed 
above and at one end of evaporating pan to supply 
juice to pan; several buckets and dippers. 

2. Varieties of Sorghum. Honey Sorghum, Orange 
Sorghum, Red Amber Sorghum, and Gooseneck Sor- 




Fig. 59. Evaporating Pan for Sorghum and Other Sirups. (Cour- 
tesy Blymer Iron Works.) 



ghum are all good varieties. Plant quick maturing 
varieties in Eastern states and late maturing varieties in 
California. 

3. Harvesting. Strip off leaves from canes when seed 
is almost ripe; cut canes at 6 to 8 inches from ground. 
Cut off seed heads and haul stripped cane to the mill at 
once. Leaves and seed heads spoil the flavor of sirup 
and make it hard to clear, therefore, they should be used 
for forage only and not for sirup. 

4. Press juice from stripped cane by running it through 
a sorghum mill (see Fig.). The mill is set on supports so 
that bottom of rollers is about 40 inches from the ground 
and is operated by a sweep fastened to top of rollers and 



SIRUPS 197 

drawn by one or two horses. Power mills may be used for 
larger factories. 

5. Allow juice from mill to flow continuously through 
settling pan and from settling pan into a 50 gal. settling 
tank. 

6. Heat to boiling and allow to settle 4 or 5 hours in 
settling tank. This can be done by running the juice 
through the pan at such a rate that it will be heated to 
boiling but not concentrated to a sirup. Skim off floating 
material and draw settled juice off from sediment. The 
settled juice is used for sirup; the sediment may be used 
for stock feed or strained and used for sirup. 

7. Fill the evaporating pan with the juice and boil 
down to a sirup. Allow sirup to flow from the pan and 
the juice to flow into the pan at such a rate that the sirup 
tests when hot, 36° to 40° Baume or 65° to 73° Balling or 
Brix. A very hot fire is essential; quick burning wood is 
best; crude oil can be used if a special burner is installed. 

8. Allow sirup to settle 4 or 5 hours in a shallow vessel. 
Draw it off and fill into sirup cans or kegs. 

Sorghum sirup outfits may be obtained from dealers 
in farm machinery. (See par. 12, and par. 46, for descrip- 
tion of sugar and sirup testers.) (56) Sugar Beet Sirup. 

1. Wash and cut in thin slices. The thinner the slices 
the better. 

2. Place slices in a pot and barely cover with water. 
Bring to the simmering point or to 175° to 180° F. and 
keep at this temperature about 45 min. Strain off the 
hot sugary liquid through a cheesecloth. It is not neces- 
sary to press the beets. A second more dilute juice can 
be obtained by heating the slices with fresh water. 

3. Strain the juice till fairly clear. Boil down rapidly 
to a heavy sirup and skim off material that comes to the 
surface. Seal hot in scalded jars, bottles, or cans. This 
sirup will be dark colored but is suitable for some forms 
of cooking and for table use. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

JELLIES AND MARMALADES 

The recipes given in this chapter are designed primarily 
for the making of jellies and marmalades in the home. 
Especial attention has been given to the jelly tests. 
These are of great value in determining when a jelly 
or marmalade has been boiled long enough; in deter- 
mining whether a given fruit is suitable for jelly making; 
and in determining how to correct a fruit that has been 
proven by test to be unsuitable. 
(57) Jellies. 

1. Fruits for Jelly. Most apples, crab apples, logan- 
berries, currants, cranberries, sour blackberries, lemons, 
oranges and lemons mixed, grape fruit, guava and lemon 
mixed, sour plums, and Eastern varieties of grapes give 
good jellies. Other fruits must be mixed with fruits 
rich in pectin or their juices must be mixed before a good 
jelly may be obtained. Oranges must be thoroughly ripe, 
or the jelly will be bitter. 

2. Crush or slice the fruit. Add water to cover unless 
the fruit is very juicy; for example, loganberries and 
currants require no water. Currants, berries, and other 
soft fruits are heated to boiling for not longer than 
5 min. ; boil apples about 20 min. and citrus fruits about 
1 hour. If the water boils off too much, add more during 
the boiling process. 

3. Pour the hot fruit and juice into a jelly bag and 
drain off the hot juice. Press the residual pulp and keep 
the pressed juice separate from the strained juice. Strain 
the juice till clear. 

4. Pectin Test. To test whether the juice has sufficient 

198 



JELLIES AND MARMALADES 199 

pectin to make a jelly, first obtain a little grain alcohol 
from the druggist. Place 1 teaspoonful of alcohol and 
1 of juice in a glass and mix. If after 4 or 5 min. stand- 
ing a heavy gelatinous precipitate forms, the juice has 
sufficient pectin; if the precipitate is small, a fruit juice 
richer in pectin must be added or less sugar than usual 
must be added. The pectin test is useful but not neces- 
sary. 

5. Acid Test. Compare the taste of the juice with a 
dilute lemonade made of 8 teaspoonfuls of water and 
1 of lemon juice and 3^2 teaspoonful of sugar. If the 
juice is very much less tart in taste than the lemon- 
ade, an acid juice must be added to the fruit juice to 
make up the deficiency. This test is useful but not 
necessary. 

6. Addition of Sugar. If the juice is rich in pectin 
and acid, add 1 cup of sugar to each cup of juice; if 
only moderately rich in these constituents, add only 
% cup of sugar to 1 of juice; if poor in pectin, add only 
}/2 cup of sugar to 1 of juice. 

7. Boiling. Boil in small lots on a rapid fire. Skim 
if necessary. The skimmings are good food; do not 
waste them. 

8. Jelly Tests. Boil until the jelly " sheets " in large 
pieces from a spoon. A better test is to insert a candy 
thermometer; or a chemical thermometer reading to 
250° F. The jelly is done when it boils at 220° F. 

Another test is the appearance of the bubbles during 
boiling. The jelly is done when the bubbles become 
very large and the jelly " tries to jump out of the pot 
into the glass." 

Another very good test is the hydrometer test. Pour 
the hot jelly into a cylinder. Insert a Baume or Balling 
hydrometer. The jelly is done when it tests 30° Baume 
or 57° Balling. For very hot climates boil down to 32° 
Baume or 60° Balling. 



200 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

9. Pour into dry glasses and allow to cool. 

10. Paraffining. Add hot paraffin to the cold jelly 
to cover it. If a thin knife blade is run around the edges 
of the jelly after adding the paraffin, it will run down 
the sides of the glass and make a seal that will not be 
so apt to " leak " or " sweat.' ' 

11. Some Causes of Failure. They are use of fruit too 
low in pectin or acid and the use of too much sugar. Very 
few cases will be found where more than 1 cup of sugar 
to 1 of juice can be used. The poorer the fruit is for 
jelly making the less sugar can be used. 

(58) Jelly Stocks. 

Fruit juices for jelly making can be sterilized and used 
later at any time for jelly. 

1. Prepare the juice for jelly making as in Recipe 57 
but do not add sugar. 

2. Heat to boiling and pour into scalded jars or bottles. 
Seal at once with scalded corks or caps. Invert to cool 
so that the hot juice will sterilize corks and jars. Seal 
corks by dipping ends of bottles in melted paraffin. 

3. The juice may also be put up as follows: Bottle 
and seal with sterilized corks. Pasteurize as described 
for apple juice in Recipe 41 at 175° F. for 20 min. 

4. To make jelly from this jelly stock, open at any 
time and proceed as with fresh juice under Recipe 57. 

(59) Jellies without Cooking. 

Currants, loganberries, and cranberries will make jelly 
without cooking because they are exceedingly rich in 
pectin and acid. 

1. Crush the fruit very thoroughly and press as 
completely as possible. Do not heat the fruit or juice. 
Strain the juice. 

2. Add 1J/2 cups of sugar to each cup of juice and 
mix until sugar dissolves. Pour into glasses (preferably 
shallow ones), and leave in the sun. The juice will set 
to a jelly in a few days. The sun evaporates the excess 



JELLIES AND MARMALADES 201 

moisture. A bright sun is necessary. After jelly has set, 
seal with paraffin. 

(60) Orange Marmalade. 

1. Use 12 oranges to 3 lemons. Cut 4 of the oranges 
in very thin slices. Cut the remaining 8 oranges and 
3 lemons into medium slices. 

2. To the 8 oranges and 3 lemons add water to cover. 
Boil slowly for 1 hour. Add water occasionally to replace 
that boiling off. Press out the juice and strain till clear. 

3. To the thinly sliced 4 oranges add water to cover 
and boil slowly till tender (% to 1 hour). Drain off the 
juice. Do not press. The slices must be kept whole. 
Strain the juice and add to that from the first 8 oranges. 

4. Mix the thin slices with whole lot of juice. 

5. Add 1 cup of sugar to each cup of mixed juice and 
slices. Boil slowly until a good jelly test is obtained or 
until the marmalade boils at 220° F. or until the liquid tests 
32° Baume or 60° Balling. 

6. Allow to stand in the pot about 5 min. or until the 
liquid cools to about 160° F. before pouring into glasses. 
This allows the slices to absorb the sirup and prevents 
their coming to the surface. Pour into glasses. Allow 
to cool and seal with hot paraffin. 

(61) Grape Fruit and Other Marmalades. 

1. Grape Fruit Marmalade. Proceed as in Recipe 60 
but use grape fruit instead of oranges. Use the same 
amount of lemon as in Recipe 60. 

2. Apricot and Peach Marmalade. Prepare an apple 
juice rich in pectin by boiling apples and pressing as for 
jelly. To each cup of this juice add % cup of sugar and 
about 34 cup of finely sliced peaches or apricots. Boil 
down until a good jelly test is obtained. Pour boiling 
hot into glasses and seal. 

Other marmaldes may be made in a similar way. 



CHAPTER XXV 

FRUIT JAMS, BUTTERS, AND PASTES 

These three products offer convenient ways of using 
many soft fruits unsuitable for canning, e. g., overripe 
berries, apricots, plums, peaches, and surplus apples. 
Butters are often made with the use of sirups instead of 
sugar; fruit sirups made as directed in Chapter XXIII 
can be used for this purpose, and in this way the sugar 
bill may be cut materially. 

(62) Fruit Jams. 

1. Weigh the fruit after peeling, pitting, etc. Add a 
little water and cook till soft. Mash with a potato 
masher or spoon or pass through a colander. If the 
fruit is very soft, boiling is unnecessary before adding 
sugar 

2. Add 1 lb. of sugar for each pound of fruit. Boil 
about 5 min. 

3. Pack boiling hot into scalded jars or cans and seal. 

4. Fruits for Jams. Apricots, peaches, figs, tomatoes, 
blackberries, loganberries, raspberries, strawberries, and 
loquats are especially good for jams. 

(63) Fruit Butters with the Addition of Sugar. 

Fruit butters are made both with and without sugar 
addition They are usually heavily spiced. 

1. Boil the peeled fruit in its own juice (or add a little 
apple juice or grape juice), until it is soft and of a mushy 
consistency. 

2. Pass through a screen to give a fine grained pulp. 
To each pound of pulp add % lb. of sugar. To each 
10 lbs. of pulp add 3 teaspoonfuls ground cinnamon and 
2 teaspoonfuls ground cloves. 

202 



FRUIT JAMS, BUTTERS, AND PASTES 203 

3. Boil slowly to a thick " butter " that can be used 
for spreading on bread. Pack boiling hot into jars and 
seal. Apples and peaches are the fruits most commonly 
used for fruit butters. Apricots are also good for this 
purpose. 

(64) Fruit Butters without the Use of Sugar. 

1. Peel and pit the fruit. Add enough juice to pre- 
vent scorching. Cook till soft. Pass through a fine 
screen. 

2. To the pulp add 3 qts. of apple or grape juice per 
quart of pulp and to each 4 qts. of the mixture 2 tea- 
spoonfuls of ground cinnamon and 1 of ground cloves. 
If apple or grape sirup prepared as directed in the recipe 
for sirup for cooking purposes is used, add 1 qt. of 
sirup to 1 qt. of pulp instead of using the juice as noted 
above. 

3. Boil down to a thick butter. Seal boiling hot in 
jars or cans. This butter will be very tart and will be 
suitable for a relish. 

(65) Fruit Pastes or Fruit Bars. 

1. Cook the fruit until tender. Pass through a fine 
screen or sieve. Berries, apricots, figs, peaches, apples, 
and quinces may be used. 

2. To the fine pulp thus obtained, add 1 cup of sugar 
per cup of pulp or add Y% cup of sugar and x /2 CU P of 
fruit sirup per cup of pulp. 

3. Cook down over a slow fire to a thick butter or 
jam. By carrying on the last part of the concentration 
in a double boiler scorching will be avoided. Cook 
down as far as possible without scorching. 

4. Pour or spread in a broad shallow baking pan or 
on a glass or marble slab to the depth of about Y2 inch. 
The pan or slab must be greased with salad oil or butter 
to prevent the paste sticking to it. 

5. Allow the material to stand in the breeze for 3 or 
4 days to further dry out. Then cut in cubes and roll 



204 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

in powdered sugar. Allow to stand in a draught or 
breeze a few days longer. Then pack in candy boxes. 

6. Grated nuts or citron peel may be added while the 
pulp is cooking and just before it is finally taken from 
the fire. 

Confections of this kind may be used as candies or as 
garnishings for various dishes. Various flavors such as 
vanilla or lemon may be added to the pastes. 



CHAPTER XXI 

RECIPES FOR PRESERVES 

Practically all fruits may be made into preserves, but 
some are better suited to the purpose than others. These 
have been emphasized in the recipes in this chapter. 

(66) Fig Preserves. 

1. Choose figs preferably of some white variety and 
not overripe. Puncture them with a silver fork thor- 
oughly so that sirup will penetrate easily. 

2. Place figs in a kettle. Add 1 lb. of sugar to each 
pound of figs and 2 pints of water to each pound of figs. 

3. Cook down slowly until the figs have become a 
heavy preserve. Pack boiling hot in scalded jars and 
seal. 

(67) Peach, Pear, Quince, and Other Fruit Preserves. 

1. Peel and prepare as for canning. Cut pears in half 
and quinces in quarters. 

2. Add 1 lb. of sugar and 2 pints of water to each pint 
of fruit. 

3. Cook down to a heavy preserve; pour into jars and 
seal hot. 

(68) Strawberry Preserves. 

1. Weigh the berries and add 1 lb. of sugar to each 
pound of berries. A little cochineal may also be added to 
color the berries because they tend to fade after cooking. 

2. Heat quickly to a boil and boil about 2 min., not 
longer. 

3. Pour into a shallow tray or baking pan and set in 
the sun until the liquid evaporates to a thick sirup and 
the berries have become plump. It will usually be neces- 
sary to cover the pan with a cheesecloth during the ex- 

205 



206 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

posure to the sun. About a week's time will usually be 
necessary for the sirup to evaporate. 

When they have reached the desired point, pack in 
jars or glasses and seal with paraffin. 

Strawberries preserved in this way will be much more 
attractive in texture, color and flavor than those prepared 
in the usual household way. 

(69) Watermelon Preserves. 

1. The white portion of the melon between the colored 
flesh and rind is best for melon preserves. Trim off the 
rind and colored flesh and cut into cubes of desired size. 

2. Weigh carefully. Drop in boiling water and boil 
about 5 to 10 min. Remove and drain. 

3. Add 1 lb. of sugar, Y^ pint of water and the juice of 
Yi a lemon to each pound of melon. Boil down to a heavy 
preserve. 

(70) Tomato Preserves. 

1. Use a very small variety of tomato; there are many 
varieties that produce tomatoes about the size of prunes. 

2. To each 4 lbs. of tomatoes, add 4 lbs. of sugar, 
V/2 qts. of water, J^ teaspoonful of ground ginger and 
1 teaspoonful of ground cinnamon. Boil down to a 
heavy preserve and seal hot. 

(71) Preserved Kumquats. 

1. The kumquat is a small citrus fruit of oblong shape 
and of the size of a small prune. Slit the kumquats 
lengthwise for about % the length of the fruit in three 
places. Boil in water till tender. With a knife blade or 
fork remove the seeds. 

2. For each pound of fruit boil together 1 lb. of sugar 
and 1 pint of water for 5 min. Add the kumquats and 
cook down until transparent. 

3. Place the fruit carefully in a shallow pan and cover 
with the sirup. Allow to stand overnight to plump. 

4. Pack in jars. Place in a washboiler sterilizer and 
sterilize 10 min. at 212° F. 



RECIPES FOR PRESERVES 207 

(72) Preserves Made Without Cooking. 

1. Berries and currants may be prepared in this way. 
Stem the berries. 

2. Weigh the berries and allow 1 lb. of sugar for each 
pound of berries. Place the berries in a shallow pan. 

3. To each pound of sugar add 34 pint of berry juice. 
Boil the juice and sugar together and pour it boiling hot 
over the berries. 

4. Place the pan in the sun and leave until the fruit 
has taken up enough sirup to become plump and the 
sirup has become very thick. 

5. Pack in glasses and seal with hot paraffin. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

RECIPES FOR CANDIED FRUITS 

If large amounts of fruit are to be candied, Recipe 73 
should be used, because it may be accurately controlled 
by the use of a sirup hydrometer; if only a small amount 
is to be made, then Recipe 74 will be found suitable, as no 
sirup hydrometer is needed when it is followed. Success 
in candying of fruit depends largely upon slow increase 
in the sugar content of the sirups used in candying, and 
in care in preventing fermentation during the candying 
process. 
(73) Candied Fruits with Use of Sugar Tester. 

1. Preparation of Fruit for Cooking. Puncture cherries, 
figs, kumquats, loquats, crabapples and apricots, through 
and through in several places with a silver fork; peel 
pears and peaches; core or pit and cut in half. Cut 
pineapple in rings as for canning or use the canned 
product. Fruit for candying should be firm ripe but not 
soft. Canned fruits may be used instead of the fresh 
fruit. 

2. If fresh fruit is used, cook carefully in water until 
tender. Avoid breaking the fruit. Place the cooked 
fruit in a pan or stoneware crock or other convenient 
vessel. 

3. Prepare a sirup of glucose or Karo Korn sirup and 
water using 1 cup of the glucose or Karo to 2 cups of 
water. Heat this sirup to boiling and cover the fruit 
with it. Allow fruit and sirup to stand 24 hours. If the 
fruit floats, place a wooden float or a tin pot cover upon 
it to keep it submerged. 

4. After 24 hours pour off the sirup and test it with a 

208 



RECIPES FOR CANDIED FRUITS 209 

Balling or a Baume hydrometer or sugar tester. This is 
done by pouring the sirup into a cylinder or tall jar and 
inserting the hydrometer. Read the degree at the surface 
of the liquid. See Fig. 32. Add sugar to increase the 
sirup to 35° Balling or to 20° Baume. This can be done 
by trial. Heat the sirup to boiling and pour it back on 
the fruit. 

5. After 24 hours pour off the sirup and add sugar to 
increase the sirup to 35° Balling or 23° Baume. Pour it 
back boiling hot on the fruit. 

6. At 24 hours intervals repeat the above process 
adding sugar to increase the sirup to 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 
65, and 70° Balling, respectively, or to 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 
35, and 37° Baume. The final sirup should be 70° 
Balling or 37° Baume. Allow the fruit to stand in this 
heavy sirup for 3 or 4 days. 

7. Then remove the fruit. Place it on a coarse screen 
and allow it to dry about a week in a breeze or draught 
in the house. 

8. Pack the candied fruit in pasteboard or wicker boxes. 
Do not use closed jars because the fruit will mold in sealed 
containers. Open jars may be used. 

(74) Candying Fruits without the Use of a Sugar Tester. 

1. Proceed exactly as in the preceding recipe under 
(1) and (2). 

2. Prepare a sirup of Karo Korn sirup or glucose, 
1 cup and water 2 cups. Heat this to boiling and pour it 
on the prepared fruit. Leave 24 hours. 

3. After 24 hours pour off the sirup and to each 4 cups 
add Yi cup of sugar. Heat to boiling and pour back on 
the fruit. 

4. At intervals of 24 hours repeat this process adding 
Yi cup of sugar to each 4 cups of sirup each time until the 
sirup becomes very thick and of about the consistency of 
thick honey. Leave the fruit in this sirup for about 1 
week. 



210 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

5. Remove the fruit and drain it. Place it on a coarse 
wire screen and allow to dry for about 1 week in a room 
where a draught or breeze will strike it. 

6. Pack in pasteboard or wicker boxes or open jars. 
Do not use sealed containers. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

RECIPES FOR THE DRYING OF FRUITS 

The following fruit drying recipes cover both evapora- 
tion by artificial heat and by solar heat. The latter 
method gives satisfactory results only in climates that 
are free from frequent summer rains. The general prin- 
ciples of fruit drying will be found discussed in Chap. XII. 
This chapter should be read in connection with the 
recipes. 
(75) Sun Drying Apricots, Pears, Peaches, and Apples. 

1. Apricots, peaches, and apples are allowed to ripen 
on the trees. Pears are picked when they are full size but 
still hard and are allowed to ripen in lug boxes or on piles 
of straw. Fruit for drying must be ripe but not so soft 
that it will melt down on the drying trays. 

2. Cut apricots and peaches in half and remove pits. 
Peaches may be lye or hand peeled (see Recipe 2), but 
this is not necessary. Cut pears in half; do not peel. 
Peel, core, and cut apples in rings about J4 inch thick (see 
apple peeler, Figs. 4 and 58). Place the fruit on trays. 
These are made of shakes or thin lumber and are 2 x 3 ft., 
6 x 3 ft., or 8 x 3 ft. usually. If trays are not available use 
paper or cloth or wire screen or any flat surface exposed to 
the sun. 

3. Sulphuring. Fig. 39 illustrates a sulphur box. Any 
closed space in which the trays of fruit may be stacked 
and exposed to the fumes of burning sulphur may be 
used. An old pan may be used to hold the sulphur. 
Place the trays of fruit in the sulphuring house. Place 
enough sulphur in a pan to burn for the required length 
of time (see time given below), 5 lbs. per ton will be 

211 



RECIPES FOR THE DRYING OF FRUITS 213 

enough for most fruits. Light the sulphur. This can be 
done by placing some shavings in the pan, lighting these 
and pouring the sulphur on them. Place the burning 
sulphur in the sulphur house and close the door. Expose 
apples to the burning sulphur fumes 30 min. ; apricots and 
peaches 3 hours and pears 6 hours. Sulphuring prevents 
the fruits darkening and molding during drying. 

4. Place the fruit in the sun to dry. Dry until it be- 
comes leathery and tough but not brittle. A better 
product will be obtained if the trays are stacked one 
above the other in stacks of 10 or 12 trays each when 
the fruit is about % dry. It will then finish drying in the 
shade and will be of more uniform quality. 

5. Sweating. Sweating consists of equalization of the 
moisture content. Put the dried fruit in large boxes or 
in bins and leave a week or 10 days. It is then ready 
for selling to the packing house. 

6. Processing. If the fruit is for home use and is not 
to be sold to a packing house, it must be sterilized to 
prevent its being spoiled by insects that come from in- 
sect eggs deposited on the fruit during drying. To do 
this plunge the fruit into violently boiling water for about 
1 min. Drain. Dry on trays in the sun for a few hours. 
The dipping destroys insects and their eggs. 

7. Packing and Storing. Pack the fruit in heavy paper 
bags or in jars or other insect proof containers. Plain 
cloth or burlap bags are not insect proof. Store in a 
dry place. 

8. Precautions. A dry rainless climate is essential to 
successful sun drying. In case of rain, stack the trays 
one above the other and cover with a rain shedding 
cover, or bring the fruit indoors until the rain has passed. 
Do not use wood for trays that will give a disagreeable 
flavor or color to the fruit. 

(76) Sun Drying Prunes. 

1. Allow fruit to ripen thoroughly on the trees, and 



214 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

if possible permit it to drop from the trees before 
picking. 

2. Dipping. Prepare a lye solution of x /i an oz. of 
lye per gallon of water. This will be approximately 3^2 a 
tablespoonful per gallon or 5 oz. per 10 gallons. Heat 
this to boiling in an iron or agateware pot; aluminum 
dissolves. Place the prunes in a wire basket. Immerse 
them in the boiling lye solution long enough to check 
or crack the skins slightly over the entire surface. This 
will require about 10 seconds. The time will vary with 
the variety of the fruit and its condition. Rinse in cold 
water after the lye dipping. 

3. Spread on trays and dry in the sun. It will usually 
be necessary to occasionally stir or turn the fruit on the 
trays during drying to prevent sticking to the trays and 
molding. 

4. Stacking the Trays. When the fruit is about three- 
fourths dried stack the trays one above the other and 
allow drying to complete. This will prevent overdrying 
and gives a more evenly dried product. 

5. Storing and Processing. As for apricots. (See Re- 
cipe 75.) 

(77) Drying Thompson Seedless and Sultana Grapes. 

1. Raisin making requires a dry hot climate free from 
rains. Dip the ripe grapes in a lye solution as directed 
for prunes. Rinse in water. 

2. Unsulphured Raisins. Dry in the sun until three- 
fourths dry. Stack the trays and allow drying to com- 
plete. During drying it will be necessary to turn the 
grapes by inverting one tray over another. This is done 
when the grapes are dried about one half. It is done 
to equalize drying. This gives a brown raisin. If a 
bleached, white raisin is desired, proceed as directed 
in step 3. 

3. Sulphured Raisins. If a bleached white product 
is desired, place the dipped grapes on trays and expose 



RECIPES FOR THE DRYING OF FRUITS 215 

to fumes of burning sulphur for 3 hours. Then dry in 
the sun in usual way. 

(78) Drying Muscat and Currant Grapes. 

1. These varieties are not dipped or sulphured. Pick 
when ripe. Spread on trays and expose to the sun. 

2. When about one-half dry turn the grapes by plac- 
ing an empty tray over the loaded tray. Turn the two 
quickly and remove the upper one. This exposes to the 
sun the grapes that were previously on the bottom of the 
bunches and next to the tray. 

3. When the grapes are about three-fourths dry, stack 
the trays and allow the grapes to finish drying in the 
stack. 

(79) Packing Raisins. 

1. Raisins are usually commercially packed as follows: 
The stems are removed by stemming machine. The 
seeds of Muscat raisins are removed by a seeding ma- 
chine. The raisins are packed in wax paper-lined cartons. 
They must be stored secure from insects. Dipping in 
boiling water before packing will kill insect eggs. 

(80) Sun Drying Cherries. 

1. Cherries may be dried in the same way as directed 
for prunes or may be dried without dipping. 

(81) Sun Drying Figs. 

1. Allow the figs to partially dry on the trees and 
drop of their own accord. A dry hot climate is nec- 
essary. 

2. Place on trays and dry in the sun. 

3. Bleaching. If a bleached fig is desired, dip the dried 
white figs in boiling water for about 3 min. Expose to 
sulphur fumes 3 hours. Dry in the sun. 

4. Packing and Storing. Commercially the dried figs 
are slit from stem to calyx on one side and spread flat. 
They are packed and pressed into bricks. These are 
wrapped in paraffined paper and placed in cartons. For 
home use they may be sterilized by dipping in boiling 



216 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

water 1 min.; drying a short time and then packing in 

insect proof containers. 

(82) Drying Fruits in Evaporators. 

1. In rainy or moist climates, or late in the season, 
artificial dryers may become necessary. Build one to 
suit your needs. (See Chap. XII, par. 67, for description 
and figures of evaporators.) Trays with wire screen 
bottoms will be needed to facilitate the passage of heat. 
A thermometer will be necessary. 

2. Prepare the fruit for drying as previously described 
under Recipes 75 to 81, inclusive, and place on the dryer 
trays. If the fruit is to be sulphured, sulphur as directed 
in preceding recipes. 

3. Apples. Start the evaporator at 110° F. and grad- 
ually raise to 140° F. near the end of drying. They should 
dry in 8 hours or less. Apples should be sulphured for 
20 min. before drying. 

4. Apricots and Peaches. A temperature of 120° F. 
may be used to start. Gradually increase to 140° F. 
They should be dry in 6 hours. 

5. Berries. Dry very slowly at first (110° to 120° F.), 
for about 2 hours, starting at 110° F. and gradually 
reaching 120° F. in the above time. Gradually increase 
to 130° F. and complete most of the drying at this tem- 
perature. Too rapid heating causes dripping and melt- 
ing. They should dry in 5 hours. 

6. Cherries. Start at 110° F. and increase slowly to 
150° F. About 4 hours will be necessary. 

7. Pears. Dry after cutting in half and sulphuring 
G hours. Start at 110° F. and increase slowly to 140° F. 

Or peel, core, cut in eighths and dry without sulphur- 
ing as above. 

8. Prunes. Dip as in Recipe 76. Dry as directed for 
cherries above. 

9. Grapes. All grapes should be dipped in boiling lye 
solution of l /2 oz. per gallon, and rinsed in cold water 



RECIPES FOR THE DRYING OF FRUITS 217 

before drying. See Recipe 77. Start drying at 110° F. 
and increase to 140° F. Temperatures above 140° F. 
will give a " scorched " or caramelized taste to the 
raisins. 

10. Figs. Allow to dry as much as possible on the 
trees. Place in the evaporator. Start at 110° F. and 
increase slowly to 140° F. 

11. Processing and Storing. Artificially evaporated 
fruits contain no insect eggs. As soon as dry, pack in 
insect proof packages and store in a dry place. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

RECIPES FOR THE DRYING OF VEGETABLES 

Vegetables may be readily sun dried in most climates 
but the quality of sun dried vegetables is usually not so 
high as that of artificially dried vegetables. Sun dried 
vegetables are usually exposed to attacks by insects, and 
insect eggs are usually deposited upon them during 
drying. This makes it imperative to sterilize vegetables 
that have been dried in the sun, to make certain that 
they will not be destroyed by insects during storage 
later. Careful attention should be therefore paid to the 
directions given in the various recipes for the sterilization 
of dried vegetables. 
(83) Sun Drying String Beans and Peas. 

1. String the beans and break into lengths as for 
cooking. Shell the peas. Peas and beans for drying 
should be young and tender. The vegetables will not 
become so tough during drying if they are parboiled 
10 minutes before drying. 

2. Spread on trays in the sun. Allow to dry about 
one-half day in sun. Then stack the trays one above the 
other or place the trays in the shade to finish drying. 
This will prevent bleaching. 

3. Processing and Storing. Dip in boiling water for 
Yi to 1 min. when dry to kill insect eggs; dry in the 
sun a few hours and pack in insect proof packages. Or 
the dried vegetables may be sterilized by heating in 
an oven long enough to heat them through thoroughly. 
This is a very satisfactory method. Peas are liable to 
attack by weevils unless sterilized as above. 

218 



RECIPES FOR THE DRYING OF VEGETABLES 219 

(84) Sun Drying Corn. 

1. Use freshly picked sweet com. Cook in boiling 
water for 10 min. Remove and cut from the cob. 

2. Spread on trays and dry in the sun. 

3. Sterilize and store as directed for peas and beans. 
(Recipe 83.) 

(85) Sun Drying Irish Potatoes. 

1. Cook until almost done. Peel. 

2. Slice and spread on trays. Dry in the sun until 
brittle. 

3. Alternative Method. Peel. Slice the raw potatoes 
and spread on trays. Expose to sulphur fumes for 
20 min. Dry in sun. 

4. Storing. As in Recipe 83. 

(86) Sun Drying Sweet Potatoes. 

1. Cook with skins on until almost done. Peel and slice. 

2. Dry in the sun. 

3. Store as in Recipe 83. 

(87) Sun Drying Carrots, Turnips, Onions, Cabbage, 
and Cauliflower. 

1. Peel and slice carrots and turnips. Slice the cab- 
bage. Break the cauliflower heads into small pieces. 
Place on trays. 

2. Expose to fumes of burning sulphur for 30 to 40 
min. (See Chap. XII, par. 64, for description of sul- 
phuring box.) 

3. Dry in the sun. Store as in Recipe 83. 

4. Alternative Method. Prepare as in 1. Parboil in 
boiling water 10 min. Spread on trays and dry in the 
sun. This method produces darker colored dried vege- 
tables than where sulphur is used but is probably better 
adapted to household use. 

(88) Sun Drying of Beets, Pumpkin, and Squash. 

1. Peel and cut in slices about V 8 in- thick. Place 
on trays and dry in the sun. No sulphuring or parboil- 
ing are necessary. 



220 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 




2. It will usually be necessary to turn the vegetables 
occasionally during drying to prevent molding. 

3. Store as directed in Recipe 83. 

4. Alternative Method for Beets. Parboil the beets 
until they may be peeled easily. Peel, slice and dry. 

(89) Sun Drying 
Tomatoes. 

1. Use ripe firm 
fruit. Cut in half 
and place on trays 
with cut side upper- 
most. 

2. Expose to 
fumes of burning 
sulphur for 1J/2 
hours. 

3. Dry in the sun. 

4. Alternative 
Fig. 61. Hand Power Vegetable Slicer Method. Cut in half 

(Courtesy Berger and Carter) and spr i n kle cut 

surfaces with salt. Dry in the sun. This gives a darker 
product. 

5. Process and store as in Recipe 83. 

(90) Sun Drying Peppers. 

1. Use ripe red peppers. 

2. String on a coarse thread and hang the peppers 
in the sun until almost dry. Hang in the kitchen to com- 
plete drying. 

3. Storing. A good way to store dried peppers is to 
merely hang them from the ceiling or a nail on the string 
on which they were dried. No processing is necessary. 

(91) Drying Vegetables in an Artificial Evaporator. 

1. Prepare for drying as directed in Recipes 83 to 90, 
inclusive. Use an evaporator with wire screen trays and 
equipped with a thermometer. Any of the forms de- 
scribed and figured in Chap. XII, par. 67 may be used. 



RECIPES FOR THE DRYING OF VEGETABLES 221 

2. Begin drying at 110° F. and gradually increase the 
temperature to 145° F. until vegetables are brittle dry. 

3. Allow the vegetables to stand in a bin or box se- 
curely covered with a cloth to exclude insects. They 
will in a few days absorb enough moisture to become 
leathery and tough. 

4. Store in insect proof packages. If cloth or burlap 
bags are used, first tie in paper to exclude insects. Store 
in a dry place. 



CHAPTER XXX 

RECIPES FOR THE MAKING OF VINEGAR 

The principles of fermentation and vinegar making will 
be found discussed in Chapter XIV. If these principles 
are understood the following recipes will be much more 
useful. The use of good material must be emphasized; 
good vinegar cannot be made from partially decomposed 
fruits. Nevertheless, cull fruits, if sound, fruit peelings, 
cores, etc., can be used to good advantage. 
(92) Home Manufacture of Vinegar from Whole Fruits. 

1. Crush the fruit and heat to boiling. Press out the 
juice through a jelly bag or coarse cloth. Allow the 
juice to cool overnight in an agateware pot or stoneware 
crock or wooden bucket or barrel. If fruits are soft and 
juicy, heating is not necessary. 

2. On the next day break up a yeast cake for each 
5 gals, or less of juice and mix it with the juice. In 
24 hours the juice will be fermenting. Allow the juice to 
stand in the crock, or bucket, etc., until fermentation 
ceases. This will require about 2 to 3 weeks. Allow to 
stand 1 week longer for the yeast to settle. This will 
make a total of 3 to 4 weeks from the time the fruit was 
pressed. 

3. When fermentation is over and the yeast has settled, 
pour or draw off the fermented liquid into another con- 
tainer of the same kind in which fermentation has taken 
place or pour it off and return it to the original con- 
tainers. 

4. To each gallon of the liquid add 1 pint of good 
vinegar, preferably vinegar from a barrel. This adds a 

222 



RECIPES FOR THE MAKING OF VINEGAR 223 

starter of vinegar bacteria and the vinegar acid favors a 
rapid start of vinegar fermentation. 

5. Cover the jar or bucket, etc., with a cheesecloth so 
that insects will be screened out and so that air may get 
to the liquid freely. An abundant supply of air is neces- 
sary for vinegar formation. If a barrel is used arrange 
it as shown in Fig. 49. The barrel should be left about 
two-thirds to three-fourths full. Leave the bung open 
and bore a hole at each end of the barrel just above the 
surface of the liquid as shown in Fig. 49. Cover the 
holes with fine screen or cheesecloth to keep out insects. 
Leave in a warm place until vinegar forms. This will 
be in 2 to 12 months, depending on temperature condi- 
tions. A warm room is best. 

6. The vinegar may then be drawn off and strained or 
filtered and should be bottled or stored in completely 
filled and closed barrels to prevent deterioration. 

(93) Vinegar from Cores, Peels, and Fruit Scraps. 

1. Often fruit scraps are wasted. These will make 
good vinegar. 

2. To each cupful of scraps, add 2 cups of water or 
enough to cover well. Boil about 10 to 15 mm. and press 
out the juice. 

3. To each 10 cups of liquid add 1 cup of sugar and 
stir until dissolved. Allow to cool overnight in a jar or 
other convenient container. (Do not use tin.) 

4. Proceed from this point as in Recipe 92. 

(94) Vinegar from Honey and Sirups. 

1. To each cup of the honey or sirup add 4 cups of 
water and a half cup of any fruit juice. 

2. Mix well and proceed from this point as in Recipe 
92. 

(95) Clarifying Vinegar. 

1. With Fish Isinglass. If a large amount of vinegar 
is to be made for sale it should be made as clear as possi- 
ble. This may be done by filtration until clear or may 



224 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

be accomplished by clarification. Fish isinglass is most 
commonly used for this purpose. The Russian isinglass 
is best. 

If the vinegar is very cloudy, weigh out 2 oz. of isin- 
glass for each 100 gals.; if moderately cloudy, 1 oz. and 
if only slightly cloudy, Yl to % oz. Soak each ounce in 
about 1 gal. of vinegar for several days. It will swell and 
become soft. Break it up thoroughly and work it into 
solution in the vinegar. Pressing it through a fine 
screen will aid. Then add it to the larger lot of vinegar 
in the proportion required as noted above. Stir well and 
let settle until clear. Draw off the cleared vinegar with a 
hose or through a spigot. 

2. With Spanish Clay. This is a clay of poor pottery 
clay grade. For each 100 gals, of vinegar weigh out 
5 to 8 lbs. of clay, depending on the cloudiness of the 
vinegar. Soak in the proportion of 1 lb. of clay to 1 gal. 
of vinegar until soft. Work up into a thin mud in the 
vinegar; it must be finely broken up into a smooth mud 
or " solution." This will require a great deal of crushing 
and stirring. An old butter churn may be used. Add the 
clay solution to the vinegar in the amount required (5 to 
8 lbs. clay per 100 gals, of vinegar). Stir. Allow to 
settle several days. Draw off clear vinegar and filter the 
sediment. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

RECIPES FOR FRUIT WINES 

The following recipes for fruit wines are designed for 
the home or very small scale manufacture of these 
fermented fruit juices. 
(96) Red Wine. 

1. Use ripe red wine grapes of good color. Crush them 
thoroughly into a wooden tub or open barrel or open 
stoneware jars. Crushing may be done with a fruit crusher 
or with the hands. Place in a warm place. 

2. In a day or two fermentation will start. Stir the 
grapes thoroughly and vigorously three times daily for 
about one week. By this time the juice should be deep 
red in color; if not, leave a few days longer. 

3. Press out the fermenting red juice from the skins 
and stems. Place it in a cask or barrel or demijohn and 
leave in a warm place till fermentation is over. Then fill 
the barrel or demijohn with wine and place a barrel bung 
or cork in loosely to close it. Do not drive it in. Leave 
thus for about 2 or 3 weeks. Then drive the bung or 
cork in tightly. Leave for three weeks longer. Then 
draw off the wine from the sediment and transfer to other 
barrels or bottles, filling them full and sealing tightly. 
If barrels are used they should be filled up occasionally, 
once a month, with wine to replace that lost by evapora- 
tion. 

4. After 6 months draw off the wine again and fill into 
clean barrels or demijohns and seal. Repeat after 
6 months. 

5. Store till wine is aged sufficiently to be used. This 
will usually not be under 1 year. It may then be bottled, 

225 



226 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

corked and stored till used. Bottling stops further 
aging and checks deterioration. 

6. Suggestions. Better results will be obtained if a 
culture of wine yeast is used for fermentation. Such a 
culture can be obtained from the Division of Viticulture, 
University of California, Berkeley, for one dollar. Grapes 
must be sound and not moldy. Keep all utensils scru- 
pulously clean. 

(97) White Wine. 

1. Crush ripe white grapes and press out the juice. 

2. Allow to ferment in a barrel, cask, or demijohn in a 
warm place. When fermented completely, proceed as 
directed for red wine. 

(98) Hard Cider from Apples, Oranges, and Other Fruits. 

1. Yeast Starter. Crush and press out the juice from a 
small amount of sound fruit. Place this in a jar in a warm 
place. When this is fermenting rapidly (after about 4 or 
5 days), it may be used to start a larger lot. Make 
enough for 1 gal. of yeast to each 10 gals, of juice. 

2. Crush and press the main lot of fruit. Add 1 gal. of 
the yeast starter from (1) to each 10 gals, of juice and 
mix thoroughly. 

3. Allow to ferment until fermentation ceases. Fill 
the containers with fermented or hard cider and close 
them with bungs or corks as the case requires. 

4. Allow to settle several weeks. Draw off from the 
sediment and filter as clearly as possible. Store in well 
filled and closed containers. The cider will be ready for 
use in a few months. It should then be bottled to pre- 
vent deterioration. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

RECIPES FOR THE PRESERVATION OF VEGE- 
TABLES BY SALT OR FERMENTATION 

Vegetables may be preserved by heavy salting with 
dry salt, by storage in strong brine and by fermentation 
in a weak brine or in the presence of a small amount of 
salt. Recipes for the use of all three methods are given. 
If the salting is carefully done, the salted vegetables 
will be very attractive in flavor and appearance. They 
will possess more of the fresh vegetable flavor and odor 
than will canned vegetables. The principles of preserva- 
tion of vegetables by salt will be found in Chap. XVI, 
pars. 96 and 97. A knowledge of these principles will 
be of great assistance in carrying out the directions given 
in the recipes. 
(99) Preservation of Vegetables by Dry Salt. 

1. Slice or shred the vegetables and weigh. String 
beans are prepared and broken as for cooking. 

2. Weigh 1 lb. of salt to each 4 lbs. of vegetables. 
Place a layer of the salt in the bottom of a crock or barrel 
or wooden tub. Do not use metal containers. Build 
the sliced or broken vegetables and salt up in alternate 
layers until the container is full. Cover last layer of 
vegetables with a layer of salt. 

3. Place a false wooden head small enough to fit in- 
side the container on top of the mixture. Place a heavy 
weight on this head. Leave until the liquid is forced out 
of the vegetables and they are immersed in the brine 
formed by their own juice and the salt. This will be 
in about 2 weeks. 

227 



228 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

4. Remove the false head and weight and seal with 
paraffin to prevent evaporation of the liquid. 

5. The vegetables will keep indefinitely and retain 
much of the original appearance and flavor of the fresh 
vegetables. To use them, soak in a large volume of 
water overnight; for example, by suspending them in a 
cheesecloth bag near the surface of a large pot of water. 
Or parboil to remove salt. Then cook and prepare for 
the table in the usual ways. 

(100) Preservation of Vegetables in Strong Brine. 

1. Prepare a brine of 33^ lbs. of salt per gallon of 
water. Immerse the whole vegetables in this and keep 
them submerged by means of a wooden float. Do not 
use metal containers. This method is especially good 
for peppers, artichokes, cauliflower and other vegetables 
not readily preserved by the dry salting process. 

2. If the vegetables show mold or fermentation at 
any time add more salt. They will keep better if the 
container is sealed with paraffin. 

3. Freshen for use as in preceding recipe. 

(101) Preservation of Cabbage by Fermentation (Sauer- 
kraut). 

1. Shred the cabbage into narrow strips and weigh. 

2. For each 10 lbs. of cabbage weight 6 oz. to 8 oz. 
i}/i lb.) of cooking or fine dairy salt. 

3. Mix the salt and cabbage very thoroughly in a 
stoneware crock or wooden container. Place a false 
head on the cabbage. A wooden head to fit inside the 
container may be made or a plate may be used for small 
amounts of material in a crock. Place a heavy weight 
on the false head (do not use limestone because it is 
acted upon by the sauerkraut). 

4. Leave in a warm place. The juice of the cabbage 
soon forms a brine. Fermentation will soon start and 
foam will appear. After about three weeks the kraut 
should have the desired flavor. When a scum appears, 



PRESERVATION BY SALT OR FERMENTATION 229 

skim it off. If this scum is left undisturbed, it may com- 
pletely spoil the product. 

5. When fermentation ceases and the kraut has de- 
veloped the proper flavor, it may be kept by sealing it 
over with paraffin. A better way is to heat it to boiling 
and pack boiling hot in jars. Sterilize 3^2 hour in a wash- 
boiler sterilizer at 212° F. and seal. It will then keep 
indefinitely. 

(102) Preservation of String Beans, Beets, and Greens 
by Fermentation. 

1. String and break the beans into lengths as for 
cooking. They should be small and tender. Peel the 
beets and slice. Trim greens as for cooking for the table. 

2. Weigh the vegetables and for each 10 lbs. of vege- 
tables weigh out y% lb. of cooking or dairy salt. Mix 
vegetables and salt intimately in a crock or barrel. 
Place false wooden cover and heavy weight on the ma- 
terial. Leave in warm place. The juice of the vege- 
tables will form a brine in which fermentation will take 
place. The fermentation should be done in 3 weeks. 

3. Seal with a thick layer of melted paraffin. 

4. Whenever the container is opened to remove ma- 
terial for cooking, it should be resealed again with 
paraffin. 

(103) 1 Preservation of Vegetables by Fermentation in 
Brine. 

1. Cucumbers, string beans, green tomatoes, beets, 
beet tops, and turnip tops, peas, corn and peppers may 
be preserved in this way. 

2. Wash the vegetables and drain off the surplus 
moisture. Pack in a keg or crock or other utensil until 
nearly full (within about 3 in. of the top). Prepare a 
weak brine as follows: To each gallon of water used, add 
3^2 pint of vinegar and % cup of salt and stir until salt is 
entirely dissolved. The amount of brine necessary to 

1 From Farmers' Bulletin, 881, U. S. D. A. 



230 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

cover the vegetables will be equal to about one-half 
the volume of the vegetables. 

3. Pour the brine over the vegetables to cover them 
and keep them submerged by means of a wooden cover. 
Leave in a warm place until fermentation is over. 

4. Remove to a cool place and seal with melted paraf- 
fin. If mold has formed, skim it off before sealing. Dill 
and spices may be added to the brine if desired, when 
it is poured on the vegetables. Vegetables prepared in 
this way have a sour taste. 

(104) Dill Pickles. 

1. Wash the cucumbers. Prepare a crock or keg, 
barrel or wooden bucket. Do not use metal. 

2. Place a layer of dill plant in the bottom of the con- 
tainer and a small quantity of mixed " dill pickle spices." 
These may be obtained from a grocery. Place two or 
three layers of cucumbers on these spices and dill plant. 
Add. another layer of dill plant and spices and two or 
three layers of cucumbers, repeating the alternation of 
layers until the container is almost full. 

3. Cover with a layer of beet leaves or grape leaves at 
least 1 in. thick. Fill and cover with a brine made of 
1 lb. of salt, 10 qts. of water and 2 /$ qt. of vinegar. 

4. Allow to stand until fermentation ceases (3 to 4 
weeks). Seal with paraffin. 

5. If large barrels are used the barrels may be headed 
up after filling with the cucumbers and spice and then 
filled with a brine, made as above. Leave the bung- 
hole open. When fermentation is over the barrel may 
be completely filled with the brine and the bunghole 
closed. 

6. Dill pickles may be kept indefinitely by heating to 
boiling in the brine in which they are made and sealing 
boiling hot in glass top jars. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

RECIPES FOR THE MAKING OF PICKLES AND 
RELISHES 

A great many products may be grouped under the 
heading of pickles and relishes. Directions for the home 
manufacture of the most important of these are given 
in the following recipes. The principles involved will 
be found in Chap. XVI, pars. 98-102, inclusive. 

(105) Cucumber Pickles in Vinegar. 

1. Choose small cucumbers. 

2. Prepare a brine of 2 lbs. of salt per gallon of water. 
Place the cucumbers in this and keep them submerged 
with a wooden float. Store in this brine for about 4 
weeks. Fermentation will take place and a scum will 
form. If the pickles become soft, add more salt. 

3. After about 4 weeks remove the cucumbers and 
heat them in a large amount of water to the simmering 
point for about 20 min. Discard this water and cover 
with fresh water. Heat to the simmering point; remove 
from fire and let stand about 2 hours to soak out the excess 
salt. If the pickles tend to be soft or " flabby," add a 
tablespoonful of alum per gallon of water. This will harden 
them and not injure health. 

4. Rinse in cold water. Drain. Store in strong cider 
vinegar of good quality until ready for use. If at any 
time the pickles soften or mold, place them in fresh 
vinegar. Pack in wide mouth corked bottles or in jars 
with glass tops. Do not use metal. 

(106) Onion, Green Tomatoes, and Cauliflower Pickles 
in Vinegar. 

1. Place the vegetables in a brine of 3 Y2 lbs. of salt 
231 



232 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

per gallon of water. Store for 4 to 6 weeks or longer 
keeping them submerged in the brine. 

2. Remove and treat as directed for cucumbers in 
preceding recipes (1), (2), and (3). 

(107) Sweet Vegetable Pickles. 

1. Prepare the cucumbers, green tomatoes, etc., as 
directed in Recipes 105 and 106 to the point where they 
are ready to be placed in the vinegar. Prick the pre- 
pared vegetables through and through in several places 
with silver fork. This will permit the sweet vinegar to 
penetrate without shrivelling the vegetables. If they 
are soft, heat them a short time in water containing 
1 tablespoonful of alum per gallon. 

2. Prepare a sirup as follows: 

3 cups of vinegar (V/2 pints). 

5 " " sugar (2J/2 pints), brown sugar is pre- 
ferred. 
1 tablespoonful mace 

1 ginger root 

2 stick cinnamon 
1 whole cloves 

Boil the vinegar and spices together slowly for about 
5 min. 

3. Heat the pickles in the spiced vinegar to boiling 
and boil about 10 min. Pack boiling hot into glass top 
jars and seal. 

(108) Sweet Fruit Pickles. 

1. Peel peaches. They may be left whole or cut in 
half as desired. Clingstone peaches are the best. Peel 
pears and cut in half and remove cores. Cherries, plums, 
and figs should be pricked with a silver fork to permit 
sirup to penetrate without shrivelling them. Whole 
Muscat, Tokay or other large grapes may be used. 
They should be left on the bunch. 

2. Prepare a sirup of the following: 

3 lbs. of sugar 



RECiVES b-OR MAKING PICKLES AND RELISHES 233 

1 pint of water 
1 " " vinegar 

1 tablespoonful of ginger root 
13^ tablespoonfuls of whole cloves 

2 " stick cinnamon 

3. Place the fruit in this sirup and cook till tender. 
Allow to stand in the sirup overnight. On the next day 
pour off the sirup and boil it down until it forms a heavy 
sirup. If the sirup is thick after standing overnight it 
will not be necessary to boil it down further. Heat the 
fruit to boiling in this sirup and pack boiling hot in 
glass top jars and seal at once. 

(109) Sweet Pickled Watermelon Rind. 

1. Remove outer peel and cut in pieces of desired size. 
Boil in salt water (4 tablespoonfuls salt per quart), for 
15 min. Rinse in water till the flavor of salt is gone. 

2. Place in sirup made according to preceding recipe. 
Boil till clear, pack hot in jars and seal. 

(110) Spiced Green Tomatoes. 

1. Prepare a sirup of the following: 
4 lbs. of sugar 

1 pint of vinegar 
1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 
1 " " cloves 

1 teaspoonful allspice 

1 " mace 

2. Drop 6 lbs. whole small tomatoes into this sirup 
and cook until they are clear. Pack boiling hot in jars 
and seal. 

(111) Chowchow. 1 

1. Take and cut in moderate sized pieces: 

2 qts. of small cucumbers 
2 " " " onions 

2 " " " green tomatoes 
1 From Connecticut Agricultural College Emergency Food Series 
No. 21. 



234 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

1 cup salt 

34 lb. ground mustard 
3 cups of sugar 

2 " " flour 

2 qts. of string beans 

2 large cauliflowers 
6 green peppers 

3 red peppers 

2 tablespoonfuls ground turmeric 

4 qts. of cider vinegar 
1 bunch of celery 

2. Remove seeds from peppers. Sprinkle with 1 cupful 
of salt and add water to cover. Let stand 24 hours. 
Place onions in separate salt water to stand likewise. 

3. Drain water from onions and scald all vegetables in 
the water in which the peppers have stood and allow to 
drain. 

4. Make a paste of mixing the mustard, turmeric, 
sugar and flour with a little cold vinegar, afterwards 
adding the balance of the vinegar which has come to a 
boil. 

5. Stir for a few minutes to a smooth consistency, then 
pour over the drained vegetables and cook slowly on the 
back of the stove for 20 min. Pack hot in jars and seal. 
(112) Mustard Pickles. 

1. Place in a brine of Y2 CU P of sa lt per quart of water 
the following vegetables and let stand overnight: 

1 pint whole small cucumbers 

1 " sliced cucumbers 

1 " whole small onions 

1 cup of string beans broken into lengths 

3 green sweet peppers (chopped) 
3 red 

1 pint small green tomatoes cut in half 
1 "of cauliflower 

2. Freshen in clear water. Allow to stand in a mixture 



RECIPES FOR MAKING PICKLES AND RELISHES 235 

of water and vinegar equal parts. Then scald in the 
same liquid. 

3. Prepare a mustard dressing of 1 qt. of vinegar, 4 
tablespoonfuls of flour, 1 cup of sugar, 3 tablespoonfuls of 
powdered mustard, 3^ tablespoonful of celery seed. Rub 
all the dry ingredients together first; heat the vinegar to 
boiling and add slowly to the dry ingredients, working 
them into a fine paste. Cook in a double boiler until the 
sauce thickens. 

4. Add the hot sauce to the pickles and heat to sim- 
mering. Pack hot in jars. Place the jars in a washboiler 
sterilizer. Sterilize 15 min. at 212° F. and seal. 

(113) Piccalilli. 1 

1. Use 8 qts. green tomatoes, 2 or 3 green sweet 
peppers and 2 hot peppers. The tomatoes may be 
chopped or sliced in Y 2 in. pieces. Soak the tomatoes and 
chopped peppers overnight in 1 pint of salt and water to 
cover. Drain thoroughly. 

2. Heat until tender in the following mixture: 

3 qts. vinegar 

4 cups of sugar 

1 teaspoonful ginger (ground) 

1 cinnamon (ground) 

2 tablespoonfuls mustard (ground or whole) 

3. Add 1 cup of grated horseradish. Heat to boiling 
and seal. Allspice, cloves, and 1 qt. of chopped onions 
may be added before cooking. 

(114) Chili Sauce. 1 

1. Take the following ingredients. 
2 qts. of ripe tomatoes (peeled) 
4 green sweet peppers 
4 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 
1 hot pepper 
4 onions 

1 From Circular 35, Agricultural Extension Service, University oi 
Missouri, by Carrie L. Pancoast. 



236 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

1 tablespoonful ginger 
Yi teaspoonful nutmeg 

2 tablespoonfuls salt 

1 teaspoonful cinnamon 
2. Chop the vegetables, add the other ingredients and 
cook till tender (\Yz hours). Then add 3 cups of vinegar, 
boil 5 min. and seal hot in jars. 
(115) Dixie Relish. 1 

1. Take 

1 qt. chopped cabbage 

1 pint chopped white onions 

1 " " sweet red peppers 

1 " " green " 

4 tablespoonfuls mustard seed 

2 " celery " (crushed) 
Y2 cup of sugar 

1 qt. of vinegar 

5 tablespoonfuls salt 

2. Soak the peppers in brine (1 cup of salt to 1 gal. of 
water), for 24 hours. Freshen in clear cold water for 
1 to 2 hours. Drain well. Remove seeds and coarse 
white sections. Chop separately and measure chopped 
cabbage, peppers, and onions before mixing. Add spices, 
sugar and vinegar. Let stand overnight covered in a 
crock or enameled vessel. Pack in small sterilized jars as 
follows. First drain off the vinegar so jar may be well 
packed. Pack the relish in the jars, pressing it carefully; 
then pour over it the vinegar which was drained off. 
Paddle the jar thoroughly to get every bubble out and 
allow the vinegar to displace all air spaces. Garnish each 
jar with two quarter-inch pointed strips of red pepper 
3 inches long, placing these strips vertically on opposite 
sides of the seams of the jar. 

3. Place in a washboiler sterilizer with caps and rub- 

1 Recipe published by Sadie R. Guseman of West Virginia Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. 



RECIPES FOR MAKING PICKLES AND RELISHES 237 

bers on loosely. Heat the water to boiling and boil 
10 min. Remove and seal. (See Fig. 15 for diagram of 
the washboiler sterilizer.) 

(116) Chutney. 1 

1. Mix the following ingredients: 
12 apples finely chopped 

6 green tomatoes finely chopped 

6 small red peppers finely chopped 

2 " onions 

Y2 cup mint leaves 

4 tablespoonfuls salt 

1 white mustard seed 

2 cups of sugar 

2 " " raisins finely chopped 

2 a u 
vinegar 

34 cup lemon juice 

2. Seal cold or let stand in a cool place in earthen or 
glass jar. No sterilization is necessary. 

(117) Pickled Sweet Peppers. 

1. 12 green or ripe sweet peppers (whole) 

2 qts. cabbage 

4 tablespoonfuls white mustard seed 

3 celery seed 

4 sweet peppers chopped 
1 hot pepper 

}/2 cup of sugar 

2. Remove stems and seeds from sweet peppers. Soak 
overnight in brine (1 cup of salt to 1 gal. of water). 

3. Chop the cabbage and the 4 sweet peppers sep- 
arately, add 1 tablespoonful of salt to each and let stand 
overnight. Drain. Mix with the other ingredients and 
stuff the peppers. 

4. Place the stuffed peppers in jars, cover with hot 
vinegar and seal. 

1 From Circular 35, Extension Service, University of Missouri 
Experiment Station, by Carrie L. Pancoast. 



238 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

(118) Green Tomato Pickle. 1 

1. 1 gal. green tomatoes 
3/2 doz. large onions 

3 cups of brown sugar 

3/2 lemon 

3 pods of red peppers 

3 cups of vinegar 

1 tablespoonful whole black pepper 

1 " " cloves 

1 " allspice 

1 celery seed crushed 

1 mustard seed 

1 ground mustard 

2. Slice the tomatoes and onions very thin. Sprinkle 
over them }/% cup of salt and let stand overnight in a 
crock or enameled vessel. Drain well. 

3. Tie the pepper, cloves, allspice, and celery seed in 
a cheesecloth bag. Slice the lemon and chop 2 pepper 
pods very fine. Add all seasoning except one pepper 
pod to the vinegar, then add the drained tomato and 
onions. 

4. Cook for Y2 hour, stirring gently at intervals to 
prevent burning. Remove spice bag to prevent darken- 
ing of the product. Pack hot in small jars and garnish 
with slender strips of the red pepper, placing them ver- 
tically on opposite sides of the jar. 

5. Place covers and rubbers on jars loosely and process 
15 min. at 212° and seal. (See Fig. 15.) 

(119) Tomato Ketchup. 2 

1. Select ripe tomatoes of deep red color. Cook the 
tomatoes thoroughly and put through a colander or 
sieve to remove seeds and skins. 



1 From Extension Circular 35, University of Missouri College of 
Agriculture by Carrie L. Pancoast. 

2 Published by Sadie R. Guseman of West Virginia University. 



RECIPES FOR MAKING PICKLES AND RELISHES 239 

2. For each gallon of the pulp so obtained use: 
2 tablespoonfuls of salt 

4 " " sugar 

1 powdered mustard 

1 whole cloves 

1 allspice 

1 " cinnamon 

1 pepper 

2 small red peppers cut finely 

1 pint of vinegar (preferably cider vinegar) 

4 tablespoonfuls ground paprika (not essential but 

desirable) 

Tie the whole spices in a bag of cheesecloth and add the 

other ingredients, except the vinegar. The paprika 

gives a bright red color and flavor, but may be omitted. 

3. Cook until almost thick enough (usually 13^ hours), 
and add the vinegar. Continue cooking till thick. 

4. Pour hot into scalded bottles and cork with corks 
sterilized in boiling water 10 min. The corks are not 
pressed in at first but left loosely in the necks of the 
bottles. 

5. Put the bottles upright in a washboiler sterilizer' 
with hot water one-half way up the bottles. Heat 
water to boiling and boil 1 hour with cover on the boiler. 
Drive corks into the bottles. Allow to cool. Seal with 
paraffin or wax. 

(120) Tomato Paste. 

No vinegar is used for this product but it is given here 
in conjunction with tomato ketchup. 

1. Boil ripe red tomatoes until soft. Pass through a 
screen to remove seeds and skins. 

2. Boil down quickly on a stove to about the con- 
sistency of thick ketchup. Then place it on the back of 
the stove or better in a double boiler and cook down 
until it is as thick as thick peanut butter. 

3. Pack hot in jars or cans. 



240 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

4. Sterilize 1 hour at 212° F. in a washboiler sterilizer 
and seal. This product can be used as a flavoring for 
various dishes, that is, macaroni, stews, rice, beans, etc., 
in the same way that canned tomatoes are used. It 
may be flavored by adding a button of garlic, a table- 
spoonful of cayenne pepper and two sweet red peppers 
and salt to taste per gallon of pulp before cooking. 
Then when thick, a little olive oil may be beaten in 
before packing in jars or cans. This product is also 
known as tomato " conserve " by the Italians. It is 
used by them in great quantities. 
(121) Ripe Olives. 

1. Varieties. Olives for pickling are grown exten- 
sively in California and to a slight extent in Arizona. 
These are the only two states of the United States that 
grow them. The most popular variety is the Mission 
olive and the next popular the Manzanillo. Practically 
no others are used for ripe pickles. 

2. Choose olives that have become red to black in 
color. Underripe fruit gives a tough, inferior product; 
overripe fruit may be soft. Olives are exceedingly 
bitter and must be treated with lye to remove this. 

3. Prepare a lye of 3 oz. of soda lye per gallon of water. 
This is 1 lb. per 5 gals, or about 3 tablespoonfuls per 
gallon. 

4. Place the olives in a stoneware crock or glas jar 
or wooden vessel. Do not use metal. Cover thoroughly 
with the lye. Stir frequently. 

5. Once every hour remove two or three olives and 
cut in half. Note whether the lye has penetrated through 
the skin. This can be determined by the fact that the 
lye will change the color of the skin and flesh of the olive. 

6. When the cutting test shows that the lye has pene- 
trated the skins and a little way into the flesh of the 
olives, pour off the lye into another vessel (usually the 
lye will pentrate in 3 to 4 hours). 



RECIPES FOR MAKING PICKLES AND RELISHES 241 

7. The olives are now exposed to the air in the vessel 
in which they were treated. Stir twice daily and leave 
exposed until they are black or dark in color. This will 
take from 1 to 5 days. The exposure is to bring back the 
color removed by the lye treatment. 

8. Return the used lye to the olives and leave until 
the lye has reached the pits of the olives, as indicated 
by cutting a sample to the pit with a sharp knife. Eight 
to 12 hours' time will usually be required. 

9. Pour off the lye. Cover the olives with water. 
Change the water twice daily until there is no longer any 
taste of lye. This will usually require 1 week. 

10. Make a brine of 5 oz. (5 tablespoonfuls), of salt 
per gallon of water. Cover the olives with this and heat 
to boiling. Pack hot in jars or cans. Sterilize 1 hour 
at 212° F. and seal (see Fig. 15 for appearance of a wash- 
boiler sterilizer). 

(122) Green Olive Pickles. 

1. Varieties. The Sevillano and Ascolano olive are 
usually employed because of their large size. Mission 
and Manzanillo may also be used. 

2. Pick the olives when full size but hard green. 

3. Prepare a lye of 3 oz. of soda lye per gallon of water. 
(1 lb. per 5 gals.). Place the green olives in this and 
leave until the lye reaches the pits; as indicated by 
cutting a sample to the pit. It will take the lye about 
24 hours to reach the pit. 

4. Pour off and discard the lye. Cover the olives with 
water. Change this twice daily until the lye is all re- 
moved; about 1 week. 

5. Prepare a brine of 9 oz. of salt per gallon of water 
(a little more than }/£ lb. per gallon). Pack the olives 
in a keg or barrel or glass jar. Fill completely with the 
brine and drive bung into keg or barrel or seal the jar. 
Leave in a quiet place until the proper flavor develops. 
This will be in about 2 months. 



242 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

6. Pour off the brine and strain it. Pack the olives in 
jars. Heat the brine to boiling and fill the jars with the 
boiling hot brine. Seal. No further treatment is neces- 
sary. 

(123) Ripe Olive Paste. 

1. Pickle ripe olives as in Recipe 121. Pit the olives 
with a cherry pitter. Grind them to a paste in a food 
grinder or sausage grinder. Flavor with salt, red pepper, 
chopped green chili and paprika to taste. 

2. Pack the paste in small jars. Sterilize 1J^ hours 
at 212° F. in a washboiler or similar sterilizer and seal. 

(124) Ripe Olives Cured by the Salt Process. 

1. Choose black ripe olives. Weigh. For each 4 lbs. 
of olives weigh 1 lb. of salt. 

2. Mix the olives and salt thoroughly in crock or 
wooden vessel. Cover with a layer of salt. Leave 
until the olives have lost most of their bitterness; about 
a month or six weeks. They will be shrivelled in ap- 
pearance. Brush off the salt and dip in olive oil. Pack 
in jars. Do not sterilize. These olives will have a slight 
bitter flavor and more " olive " flavor than olives pickled 
by the lye process. They are used extensively in Europe 
and in America by Italians and Greeks. This process 
was used by the ancient Romans and Jews. 

(125) Dessicated Olives. 

1. Pickle ripe olives as directed in Recipe 121. 

2. Place in a slow oven and dry. The olives will first 
shrivel and become hard. Heat them until they swell 
again to their original size. These olives will be dry and 
very light and porous. They are an excellent " between 
meal " morsel. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

RECIPES FOR THE HOME PRESERVATION OF 
MEATS AND EGGS 

The meat preservation recipes given in this chapter 
(with the exception of the fish preservation recipes), 
were taken from Farmers' Bulletin 183, written by 
A. Boss. The fish preservation recipes were furnished 
by H. Davi, at present with the Bureau of Chemistry 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Recipes for Home Curing of Meats. 1 

(126) Plain Salt Pork. 

1. Prepare a clean hard wood barrel by thoroughly 
scrubbing the inside with hot water and washing soda 
or a little lye and rinsing thoroughly with water. Sirup 
barrels, alcohol or whisky barrels that are still sound 
and sweet may be used. A large stoneware crock is also 
suitable. 

2. The meat must be properly and thoroughly cooled 
because if salted before the animal heat is out the shrink- 
age of the muscles cause the retention of injurious gases, 
giving an offensive odor to the meat. It must not be 
frozen because the salt will then not penetrate. Or- 
dinarily 24-36 hours' cooling after slaughtering will be 
sufficient. 

3. Cut the carcass in pieces about 6 in. square. Rub 
each piece with fine salt and pack closely in a barrel. 
Let stand overnight. 

4. The next day weigh out 10 lbs. of salt and 2 oz. 
1 The recipes for the curing of pork and beef were taken from 

Farmers' Bulletin 183, U. S. D. A., by Andrew Boss. 

243 



244 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

of saltpeter to each 100 lbs. of meat and dissolve in 
4 gals, of water. Allow this brine to cool thoroughly. 

5. Cover the pork completely with this cold brine 
and weight it down with stones or other heavy weights 
to keep it completely immersed. The pork should be 
kept in the brine till used. 
(127) Corned Beef. 

1. Cool the carcass thoroughly but do not allow it to 
freeze. Cut in pieces about 5 or 6 in. square. The 
cheaper cuts such as plate, rump, cross ribs, brisket, 
etc., are ordinarily used. Fat beef gives better results 
than too lean meat. 

2. Weigh the cut meat carefully and allow 8 lbs. of 
salt to each 100 lbs. of meat. Sprinkle a layer of salt 
34 in. thick in the bottom of the barrel. Pack in as 
closely as possible the cuts of meat, making a layer 5 or 
6 in. thick. Then put on a layer of salt, following that 
with another layer of meat. Repeat until the meat 
and salt have all been packed into the barrel, care being 
used to reserve salt enough for a good layer over the 
top. 

3. After the package has stood overnight add for 
every 100 lbs. of meat, 4 lbs. of sugar, 2 oz. of baking 
soda, and 4 oz. of saltpeter dissolved in a gallon of tepid 
water. Three gallons more of cold water should be 
enough to cover this quantity. In case more or less 
meat is to be corned, make the brine in the proportion 
given. 

4. A loose board weighted down with a heavy stone 
or other weight should be put on the meat to hold it 
down under the brine. 

5. In warm weather the brine may become slimy or 
ropy. If this happens make a new brine of 8 lbs. of salt, 
4 lbs. of sugar, 2 oz. of baking soda, and 4 oz. of salt- 
peter to 4 gals, of water. Pour off the old brine and wash 
the meat thoroughly. Add the new brine. If the meat 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS AND EGGS 245 

is kept a long time the brine should be changed occa- 
sionally. The meat will usually be corned and ready 
for use in 6 weeks. 

(128) Sugar Curing Hams and Bacon for Smoking. 

1. Cut bacons in proper sizes and trim hams and 
shoulders after meat has cooled. Weigh. 

2. Then pack in a barrel with the hams and shoulders 
in the bottom, using strips of bacon to fill in between 
or to put on top. 

3. Weigh out for each 100 lbs. of meat, 8 lbs. of salt, 
2 lbs. of brown sugar and 2 oz. of saltpeter. Dissolve 
all in 4 gals, of water and cover the meat with the brine. 
For summer use it will be safer to boil the brine and 
allow it to cool before using. Place a few pieces of board 
on the meat with weights to keep the meat immersed 
in the brine. 

4. Bacon strips should remain in the brine 4 to 6 weeks 
and hams 6 to 8 weeks before smoking. In case the 
brine becomes slimy or ropy remove it, wash the meat 
and cover with a fresh brine made as above. 

(129) Dry Curing of Pork for Smoking. 

1. Cut bacons to proper size and trim hams and 
shoulders. Weigh. 

2. For each 100 lbs. of meat weigh out 5 lbs. of salt, 
2 lbs. of granulated sugar, and 2 oz. of saltpeter and 
mix them thoroughly. 

3. Rub the meat once every 3 days with a third of 
this mixture. While the meat is curing it is best to 
have it packed in a tight box or barrel. For sake of 
convenience it is advisable to have two barrels and to 
transfer the meat from one to the other each time it is 
rubbed. After the last rubbing the meat should be let 
lie in the barrel a week or ten days, when it will be cured 
and ready to smoke. It cures best in a cool moist place; 
and the preservatives will not penetrate satisfactorily 
in a dry warm place. 



246 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

(130) Salting Beef for Drying. 

1. The round is usually employed. Cut the fresh 
meat lengthwise of the muscle fibers so that the fibers 
will be cut crosswise later for table use, after drying. 
A tight jar or barrel is necessary for curing. 

2. To each 100 lbs. of meat weigh 5 lbs. of salt, 3 lbs. 
of sugar, and 2 oz. of saltpeter. Mix thoroughly. 

3. Rub the meat with a third of the mixture and pack 
tighly in a large jar or cask. Allow to remain 3 days. 
Remove and rub with a third of the mixture. In re- 
packing, put at the bottom the pieces that were on top 
during the first salting. Rub again with remaining third 
of the mixture. Let stand 3 days. It is then ready for 
smoking and drying. The brine forming after each 
salting should not be removed but the meat should be 
repacked in the liquid each time. 

(131) 1 Preservation of Fish by Salting. 

1. Select fish that are fresh. 

2. For large fish such as salmon and shad, cut off the 
head; scale, split in two down the back and remove back- 
bone and visceral matter. Clean fish thoroughly. In 
splitting the fish two pieces very much alike will be ob- 
tained. Make three or four straight incisions on the 
outside of each piece so that the salt will penetrate. 
Then cut the two pieces in half crosswise making four 
pieces for each fish. 

3. Make up a saturated brine so. that it registers 
95° on the salometer or simply prepare a brine of 3 lbs. 
of salt per gallon of water. 

4. Immerse the fish in the brine. Leave immersed 
48 hours. A wooden weight should be used to keep the 
fish completely submerged. 

5. Remove the fish and drain thoroughly 3 to 4 hours. 
Use 5 or 10 gal. kegs for packing. Place the fish in the 
bottom of barrel on layer of salt with flesh side of fish 

1 The Fish Recipes were given by H. Davi. 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS AND EGGS 247 

upward. Sprinkle with a layer of salt. Add another 
layer of fish; then another layer of salt and so on until 
the keg is full. Cover with a thin layer of salt. Cut a 
circular false head to fit inside the barrel and weight it 
down heavily. 

6. After a month drain off the oily liquid and replace 
with a saturated brine of 3 lbs. of salt per gallon of 
water. Weight down again and examine occasionally. 
The fish is ready for use in 5-6 months. Crocks may be 
used instead of barrels, but barrels seem to give a better 
flavor. 

7. Small Fish. Small fish such as herring, anchovy, 
mackerel, and sardines are not cleaned. Immerse in 
saturated brine of 3 lbs. salt per gallon for 24 hours. 
Then proceed as directed for large fish by packing in 
dry salt. 

8. Salt. The salt used should be granular, not too fine. 
(132) Home Made Smokehouse. 

A good form of smokehouse is shown in Fig. 56. It 
can be made of any size. If a very small one is to be 
made, a large dry goods box or an old barrel may be 
used. It should be so arranged that the pieces of meat 
will hang clear of each other and so that the smoke will 
pass freely around the pieces. The smoke should be 
generated outside the house and conducted to the bottom 
of the house by means of an old stovepipe or covered 
ditch. If a larger house is built it should be 8 to 10 ft. 
high. One 6 x 8 ft. will be large enough for ordinary 
farm use. Ample ventilation should be arranged to 
carry off the heat. Small openings under the eaves or 
a chimney in the roof will be sufficient, arranged so 
that they may be controlled. A fire pot should be built 
outside the house and the smoke conducted into the 
house by means of a flue made of stovepipe or wood. 
If the meat hangs 6 or 7 ft. from the floor a fire may be 
built on the floor of the house itself. 



248 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

(133) Fuel for Smoking. 

Green hickory or maple smothered in sawdust of the 
same wood are considered excellent for smoking pork 
and beef. Any hard wood is superior to soft wood. 
Corn cobs may be used but give off carbon that may 
darken the meat. Spent tan bark from tanneries is the 
best material for smoking fish. It is also very good for 
other meats. The wood should smolder and smoke and 
not burst into flame. 

(134) Ham and Bacon. 

1. Cure the ham in brine or salt as described in Re- 
cipes 130 and 131. Rinse off adhering salt and allow to 
drain. Hang in the smokehouse. 

2. Smoke continuously for 2 or 3 days or smoke 3 or 4 
hours each day for about 2 weeks. Use hard wood or 
spent tan bark for smoke. 

3. As soon as the meat is sufficiently smoked, open 
the doors and windows of the smokehouse and allow 
meat to cool. When thoroughly cooled, remove and 
wrap each piece closely in paper. Put the wrapped 
pieces in strong sacks and tie well at the top. The 
sacks should be hung where they are to remain until the 
meat is used. The sacks should be coated with a thick 
paste of lime, water and enough glue to make the mixture 
stick. Do not stack in piles. Hang so pieces do not 
touch. 

(135) Dried Smoked Beef. 

1. Prepare the beef by salt curing according to Re- 
cipe 132. Rinse off adhering salt and hang in smoke 
house. Allow to drain several hours. 

2. Smoke for about 3 days. Then hang in the kitchen 
or a dry attic and allow to dry until sufficiently dry for 
slicing. 

(136) Smoking Large Fish. 1 

1. Use fresh fish only. Scale. Clean. Cut in half 
1 The Fish Recipes were given by II. Davi. 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS AND EGGS 249 

down the back and remove backbone. Cut in pieces 
about 6 in. long. 

2. Prepare a saturated solution of salt (3 lbs. per gallon 
of water). Place fish in this brine for 24 hours, keeping 
them immersed by wooden floats. 

3. Remove from brine and allow to drain 4 hours. 

4. Construct a smokehouse as previously described 
but make a number of wire netting trays that may be 
supported in some way in the smokehouse. They may be 
supported on cleats, nailed to the sides of the house if 
it is small, or by wires from the rafters if the house is 
large. A number of trays may be placed one above the 
other if a space of a few inches is allowed between each 
pair. Lay the fish on these wire netting or wire screen 
trays. 

5. Smoke the fish 10 to 12 hours with tan bark smoke. 
Obtain this from a tannery. If this cannot be obtained 
use any hard wood chips smothered in hard wood sawdust. 

6. Remove the fish and dry in the sun 3 to 5 days. If 
the sun is not shining, dry in a very slow oven or any 
form of fruit dryer. (See descriptions of artificial dryers, 
Chap. XII, par. 68.) Wrap in paraffined paper and 
pack in boxes in a cool dry place. 

(137) Smoking Small Fish. 

1. Cut off heads. Scale and clean. Split so that 
halves just hold together. 

2. Store in brine of 3 lbs. salt per gallon of water for 
20 hours. Remove and drain 4 hours. 

3. Smoke 8 hours, using spent tan bark if obtainable. 

4. Dry in the sun 2 to 3 days, or in artificial dryer. 
Wrap in paraffined paper and pack. 

(138) Drying Fish. 

1. Place the fish in a brine of 3 lbs. of salt per gallon of 
water as directed in Recipe 133. Drain 5 hours. 

2. Dry several days in the sun or in artificial evapora- 
tors until most of the moisture is removed. Wrap in 



250 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

paper or press into bricks and wrap. Store in dry- 
place. 

(139) Dried Beef and Venison (" Jerkey "). 
This can only be made in a dry arid climate. 

1. Cut in strips about 2 in. wide and Yi in. thick. Rub 
with a little salt and sprinkle heavily with pepper to 
repel insects. 

2. Hang strips on a clothesline or long wire or string in 
the sun till dry. Pack in sacks. 

(140) Preservation of Eggs in Water Glass. 

1. To each pint of water glass obtained from a grocery 
or drug store, add 9 pints of water. Pack the eggs in a 
stoneware crock, tin can, or wooden vessel. Fill with the 
water glass and cover to prevent evaporation. Store in a 
cool place. 

2. Alternative Method. Prepare a solution of 1 cup of 
water glass to 2 cups of water. Dip the eggs in this 
solution and allow to dry on a layer of flour or bran. Dip 
again the next day and allow to dry as before. Pack in 
bran and store in a cool place. Or pack in dry salt. 
This is preferable to bran. 

3. Caution. Use only fresh eggs and if possible non- 
fertile eggs. In method (2) use clean, very dry bran. 

(141) Preservation of Eggs in Lime and Salt. 1 

1. Slack 2 lbs. of lime in a small quantity of water. 
Mix with 2 gals, of water and add 1 lb. of salt. Stir 
thoroughly and allow to settle. 

2. Pour off the clear solution and use it for the preser- 
vative. This will be sufficient for about 12 doz. eggs. 

1 This method is given by J. B. Hayes and F. E. Mussehl in Cir- 
cular 74, Agricultural Extension Service, University of Wisconsin. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
RECIPES FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS 

Most dairy products are best made on a factory scale. 
This is especially true of cheese. For this reason only one 
recipe for hard cheese has been given. This recipe has 
been recommended by the University of Minnesota 
Experiment Station as being the most suitable for farm 
use. The recipe given for cottage cheese is one of the 
most approved and easily followed. Recipe 146 deals 
with the preservation of butter by salting. 
(142) Gouda Cheese. 1 

This cheese is made from whole sweet milk. One 
hundred pounds of milk will make 10 lbs. of finished 
cheese. It is best adapted to home manufacture of the 
100 varieties of cheese on the American market. No 
special equipment is necessary. 

1. The Tools. An ordinary washboiler serves very 
well as a vat. The curd may be heated by placing the 
boiler on the edge of the kitchen stove. The curd is best 
cut with many bladed knives called curd knives, made for 
the purpose, one with vertical and one with horizontal 
knives; but the cutting may be done with a common wire 
bread toaster or even with a coil of hay wire. 

2. The wooden mold should be made like a strong box, 
about 10 x 8 in. inside measurement. The top and 
bottom should be loose and small enough to fall down 
through the mold; or in other words, to follow down 
when the cheese is pressed. 

The press is made of a cleat nailed against the wall, a 
box in front, and a 2 x 4 or pole 10 or 12 ft. long for a 
lever. A pail of stones makes an excellent weight. 

1 R. M. Washburn. Special Bui. 12, Agr. Extension, Univ. Minn. 

251 



252 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

An accurate thermometer is needed for uniform work. 
The floating dairy kind is most convenient, but an 
ordinary weather thermometer may be used. 

3. The Milk. The best cheese is made from clean, 
fresh, morning's milk, before it is 4 hours old. If night's 
milk is used it should either be made up at once or be 
thoroughly cooled after milking. Milk that is even 
slightly turned will make a quick acting, hard, dry cheese. 
If the milk is not clean or is too old the cheese is likely to 
become gassy and ill flavored. 

4. The Rennet. The most practical rennet for farm 
use is that in tablet form, obtainable from any creamery 
supply company. One No. 2 fresh rennet tablet will 
thicken 12 gals, or 100 lbs. of milk. When the tablets are 
old, more must be used. Just before being used, the 
tablets should be dissolved at the rate of 1 tablet per 
pint of cold water. Hot water will kill the rennet. Ren- 
net is improved by an ounce of salt to a pint of water, 
especially if it must be held for several minutes after 
being dissolved. 

5. Heating. Heat the milk in the washboiler to 88° F. ; 
not over 90° F. and not under 86° F. 

6. Setting. The rennet solution at the rate of 1 tablet 
per 12 gals, is then added and thoroughly stirred for 
2 min. The surface should be stirred for another 2 min. 
to prevent the cream from separating from the milk and 
being lost. 

7. Holding. The mixture is then covered and allowed 
to stand at 88° F. until the curd has become thick. This 
should require not less than 12 nor more than 18 min. 

8. Cutting. The curd is ready to cut when it has 
coagulated enough to cause it to break clear over the 
forefinger when the finger is inserted into the curd at an 
angle of 45°, lifted upward and touched on the top of the 
thumb. The curd is cut into small cubes to allow the 
whey to escape more quickly and perfectly. Therefore 



RECIPES FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS 253 

the curd lumps or cubes should be cut in uniform size and 
about one-third of an inch across. 

9. Stirring. Stirring is necessary to obtain a uniform 
removal of the whey as the curd continually settles and 
mats into large masses unless broken up by hand or by a 
small rake. The curd should be stirred gently at inter- 
vals until it is sufficiently cooked. 

10. Heating. After the cutting and the first thorough 
stirring, the curd should be slowly heated to about 
100° F. This may be done by edging the boiler back on 
the stove or by pouring clean hot water directly into the 
boiler or vat. The whey may be dipped off and more 
hot water added until the desired temperature is 
reached. 

11. Dipping and Draining. When the curd has be- 
come so firm that a handful firmly squeezed, will fall 
apart when released, it is ready to be removed and put to 
press. Draining can be done by straining through cheese- 
cloth. 

12. Pressing. When the whey and water have been 
drained off, the granules of curd are firmly pressed into 
the mold or form. If the wooden form is used, a clean 
piece of cheesecloth should be first laid over and pressed 
down into the box and then the curd pressed into all 
corners. When the form is filled the cloth should be 
folded over it, the follower head inserted, and the whole 
put to press, first with little pressure and later with more. 
If the metal form is used, the curd is first pressed in 
without the cloth to permit the water to escape promptly, 
but upon being dressed it is covered with thick, firmly 
woven cloth bandages. 

13. Dressing. After the cheese has been pressed for an 
hour or two it should be taken out and turned over in the 
form, all wrinkles in the bandage being smoothed out. 
It should then be returned to the press and should re- 
main under heavy pressure for half a day or even until 



254 HOME AND FARM FOOD PRESERVATION 

the next morning, when it should be taken out and put 
into salt as directed in the next step. 

14. Salting. Salting is best done by floating the young 
cheese in brine made as strong as possible (3 J/2 lbs. of 
salt per gallon of water). Dry salt is sprinkled on the 
top of the cheese and every 12 hours the cheese is turned 
over in the water and resalted. This is continued from 
30 to 40 hours. It is then wiped dry and stored in a cool 
place. 

15. Paraffining. By the old system the cheese was 
greased to keep the moisture in and rubbed firmly by 
hand every day to keep off mold, but a better way is to 
allow the cheese to become slightly dry and then dip into 
hot paraffin. A kettle filled with water, with half an 
inch of paraffin on the water, brought to a boil, makes an 
excellent paraffining tank. If the parafin is too hot, it 
will draw the fat out of the cheese and will not cling well. 
If the cheese is too moist the paraffin will not cling well. 
Melted paraffin may also be painted on the cheese. 

16. A cellar or other fairly cool place is best for curing. 
If too warm, the cheese will ripen too fast and may 
develop an off flavor, while if too cold it will work too 
slowly. A temperature of about 60° F. is very good. 
Cheese made in this way should be ready to eat in from 
three to eight weeks. It should keep for six months or 
more. 

(143) Cottage Cheese. 

1. Souririg the Milk. Allow sweet clean milk to stand 
in a warm kitchen until thick and " clabbered." 

2. Cutting. Cut in small cubes with a case knife. In 
making large quantities it is well to use regular curd 
knives. Allow to stand undisturbed for several minutes 
or until the whey has been fairly well forced out. 

3. Heating. Heat with gentle stirring to 93-98° F. 
Allow to stand at this temperature until it is fairly firm 
to the touch. Then it should be drained. 



RECIPES FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS 255 

4. Draining. Pour into a bag of cheesecloth and allow 
to drain an hour or two. 

5. Finishing. Add salt to taste. Cream may be added 
if desired and also white pepper. Chopped pimentoes or 
red peppers may be added. Paprika may also be used 
and adds very much to the flavor. Mix with a large 
spoon or silver fork. The cheese should be used the day 
on which it is made. 

(144) The Preservation of Butter by Salt. 

1. By Dry Salt. Use fresh sweet butter. Weigh care- 
fully. Weigh 1 lb. of salt for each 10 lbs. of butter. Work 
it in thoroughly. Pack tightly in crocks and cover with 
salt. Store in a cold place. When the butter is to be 
used, freshen it by working it in cold water. 

2. In Brine. To each 10 lbs. of butter, add X A lb. of 
salt and work in thoroughly. Make a brine of 3j/£ lbs. of 
salt per gal. Pack the butter down in this brine and store 
in a cool place. Keep the butter immersed in the brine 
with weights if necessary. Before use, freshen by work- 
ing in cold water. 



APPENDIX 

Hydrometer Table for Salt, Sugar, and Lye Solutions 

The following table can be used to find the equivalents 
of the various systems used in measuring the amounts of 
salt, sugar, and lye in water solutions. The table is also 
valuable for use in the preparation of solutions of these 
substances of desired strengths. For example: Suppose 
a 5% salt solution is desired. Six and seven-tenths (ap- 
proximately 6%) oz. of salt would be added to each gallon 
of water; this figure being found by consulting the figure 
in column 3 under ''Ounces per Gallon," opposite 5 in 
column 2. 

If a Baume hydrometer is in use, the corresponding 
Balling degrees or per cent sugar can be found in column 4. 

The table has been arranged by J. R. Zion of the Uni- 
versity of California. 



257 



258 



APPENDIX 



Relation of Specific Gravity, Salt, Sugar and Soda Lye 



Relation of Speci 


fio Gravity, Salt, 


Sugar, and Soda Lye 




Salt 


Sugar 


Soda Lye 


Specific 


Baume or 
Per Cent 


Oz. -per 


Balling or 
Per Cent 


Oz. per 


Per 


Oz. per 


Gravity 


Salt 


Gal.' 


Sugar 


Gal. 1 


Cent 


Gal. 1 


1.007 


1 


1.3 


1.8 


2.3 


0.5 


0.7 


1.014 


2 


2.6 


3.6 


4.8 


1.2 


1.5 


1.022 


3 


4.0 


5.5 


7.5 


1.8 


2.4 


1.029 


4 


5.3 


7.2 


9.9 


2.5 


3.2 


1.036 


5 


6.7 


9.0 


12.6 


3.1 


4.1 


1.045 


6 


8.1 


10.8 


15.5 


3.7 


5.0 


1.052 


7 


9.6 


12.6 


18.5 


4.5 


6.0 


1.060 


8 


11.1 


14.5 


21.7 


5.2 


7.0 


1.067 


9 


12.7 


16.2 


24.7 


5.S 


8.0 


1.075 


10 


14.2 


18.1 


28.3 


6.6 


9.0 


1.083 


11 


15.8 


19.8 


31.6 


7.3 


10.1 


1.091 


12 


17.5 


21.7 


35.5 


8.1 


11.3 


1.100 


13 


19.1 


23.5 


39.3 


8.8 


12.4 


1.108 


14 


20.8 


25.3 


43.3 


9.5 


13.5 


1.116 


15 


22.6 


27.2 


47.8 


10.3 


14.7 


1.125 


16 


24.4 


29.1 


52.5 


11.1 


15.9 


1.134 


17 


26.2 


30.9 


57.2 


11.9 


17.3 


1.142 


18 


28.1 


32.7 


62.2 


12.7 


18.6 


1.152 


19 


30.0 


34.6 


67.7 


13.5 


19.9 


1.162 


20 


32.0 


36.5 


73.6 


14.3 


21.3 


1.171 


21 


34.0 


38.3 


79.5 


15.1 


22.7 


1.180 


22 


36.1 


40.1 


85.7 


16.0 


24.2 


1.190 


23 


38.2 


42.0 


92.7 


16.9 


25.7 


1.200 


24 


40.4 


43.9 


100.2 


17.8 


27.3 


1.210 


25 


42.7 


45.9 


108.6 


1S.7 


29.0 


1.220 


26 


45.0 


47.7 


116.7 


19.6 


30.7 


1.231 


27 


47.3 


49.6 


126.0 


20.6 


32.5 


1.241 


28 


49.8 


51.6 


136.5 


21.5 


34.2 


1.252 


29 


52.3 


53.5 


147.3 


22.5 


36.1 


1.263 


30 


54.9 


55.4 


159.0 


23.5 


38.0 


1.274 


31 


57.5 


57.3 


171.8 


24.5 


39.9 


1.285 


32 


60.2 


59.3 


186.5 


25.5 


41.9 


1.297 


33 


63.0 


61.2 


201.9 


26.6 


44.1 


1.308 


34 


66.0 


63.2 


219.8 


27.6 


46.3 


1.320 


35 


68.0 


65.2 


240.0 


28.8 


48.7 


1.332 


36 


72.0 


67.2 


262.2 


30.0 


51.1 


1.345 


37 


75.2 


69.2 


287.6 


31.2 


53.7 



Ounces of material to be added to one gallon of water. 



APPENDIX 259 

Formula for Soldering Fluid 

Place granulated zinc in an open glass fruit jar or other 
open glass container and add approximately three times 
its volume of strong muriatic (hydrochloric) acid and 
allow to stand for about one hour. Strain off the solution 
from the undissolved zinc through a cloth. Add an 
equal volume of water to the solution. It is then ready 
to use. It may be used repeatedly until it becomes too 
weak to act satisfactorily. 

Labeling Laws 

Most states have enacted laws that make it compulsory 
to state on the label in prominent sized type the net con- 
tents of all cans, bottles, and other packages containing 
foods offered' for sale. The net contents are to be indi- 
cated in ounces or pounds if the food is solid : and as fluid 
ounces, pints, quarts, or gallons if the product is liquid. 
By measuring or weighing the contents of several of the 
containers after they have been processed, etc., a safe 
minimum for the net contents may be established and 
labels designed accordingly. 

The label must also state plainly the kind of product 
in the container and the contents must correspond to this 
declaration. Adulterants, antiseptics, or artificial colors 
if used, must also be declared on the label. 

If these points are borne in mind, no trouble with the 
pure food authorities will arise from the sale of good 
grades of home prepared food-stuffs. 

Federal Standards for Vinegar U. S. D. A. 

" 1. Vinegar, cider vinegar, apple vinegar, is the product 
made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermenta- 
tions of the juice of apples; is laevo rotary, and contains 
in one hundred cubic centimeters not less than four (4) 
grams of acetic acid, and not less than one and six-tenths 



260 APPENDIX 

grams of apple solids, of which not more than fifty (50) 
per cent are reducing sugars. 

2. Wine vinegar, grape vinegar, contains in one hun- 
dred cubic centimeters not less than four (4) grams of 
acetic acid, and not less than one gram of grape solids." 

Note: Four grams acetic acid per one hundred cubic 
centimeters corresponds to 40 grains on the Leo Acid 
Tester. Vinegar for sale should test at least 45 on the 
Leo Tester. 

References on Home Canning 

1. Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack Method. 

O. H. Benson. Farmers' Bui. 839. U. S. D. A. 
1917. 

2. Home Canning Fruits and Vegetables. Ola Powell. 
Farmers' Bui. 853. U. S. D. A. 1917. 

3. Canning Vegetables in the Home. J. F. Breazeale. 
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 359. 1909. 

4. Canning Peaches on the Farm. H. P. Gould and W. F. 
Fletcher. Farmers' Bui. 426. U. S. D. A. 1915. 

5. Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work. J. F. 
Breazeale and O. H. Benson. Farmers' Bui. 521. 
1916. U. S. D. A. 

6. Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. Maria Parloa. 
Farmers' Bui. 203. U. S. D. A. 1904. 

7. Some Common Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms. 
Flora W. Patterson and Vera K. Charles. Farmers' 
Bui. 796. U. S. D. A. 1917. (Contains Method of 
Canning.) 

8. Home and Farm Canning. W. V. Cruess. Circular 

158. University of California Experiment Station. 
1917. 

9. Illustrated Food Preservation Leaflet. I. Canning 
Fruits and Vegetables. W. V. Cruess. University 
California Experiment Station, 1917. 

10. A Canning Business for the Farm Home. Claribel 



APPENDIX 261 

Nye and Bessie Austin. Cornell Reading Course, 
Vol. II, No. 47. 1913. 

11. Principles and Methods of Canning. Cornell Reading 
Course, Vol. Ill, No. 69. Flora Rose and O. H. 
Benson. 1914. 

12. Food Preservation: A National Challenge. Cornell 
Reading Course. Lesson 113. June, 1917. 

13. Canning, Preserving, Pickling. States Relations 
Service. Doc. 22. Ext. S. No. A-81. U. S. D. A. 

14. Canning Equipment. Cornell Reading Course. Vol. 

Ill, No. 71. Sept. 1, 1914. 

15. The Marketing of Country Club Products. L. B. Flohr. 
Markets Doc. 5, Sept. 10, 1917. U. S. D. A. 

16. National Canning Recipes. Published by North- 

western Iron and Steel Co., Eau Claire, Wis. 

17. Home Canning of Fruit and Vegetables. Mary E. 

Cresswell. Georgia State College of Agriculture. 
Bui. 107. 1917. 

18. Home Canning. Anna M. Turley. Oregon Agr. Col- 

lege Extension Bui. 204. 1917. 

19. Canning and Preserving with 4-H Recipes. Exten- 
sion Circular No. 11. (Revised.) North Carolina 
Agr. College. 1917. 

20. Home Canning. F. J. Crider. Bui. 26. Farmers' 

Reading Course of Clemson College, South Carolina. 
1917. 

21. Canning Fruits and Vegetables on the Farm. C. C. 
Vincent. Idaho Expt. Station. Bui. 82, 1915. 

22. Canning Fruits and Vegetables. J. C. Price. Ala- 
bama Polytechnic Institute Extension Circular 12. 
1917. 

23. Home Canning. F. E. Miller. Bui. 12. 1914. Vir- 

ginia Truck Experiment Station. 

24. Home Canning by the Cold Pack Method. Naomi L. 

Newburn. Illinois Agr. Expt. Station Extension 
Circular 10, 1917. 



262 APPENDIX 

25. Home Canning. Extension Circular No. G. Ver- 
mont Agr. Extension Service. 1917. 

26. The Farm Vegetable Garden. Leroy Cady (with chap- 
ter on Canning by R. S. Mackintosh). Ext. Bui. 17. 
Minnesota Agr. Expt. Station. 1916. 

27. Preservation of Fruits, Vegetables and Meats. Ger- 
trude McCheyne and J. C. Hogenson. Circular 18. 
Utah Agr. College. 

References on Commercial Canning 

1. Methods Followed in the Commercial Canning <f 
Foods. A. W. Bitting. U. S. D. A. Dept. Bui. 196. 
1916. 

2. Preliminary Bulletin on Canning. A. W. Bitting. 
Bui. 4. National Canners' Assn. Research Labora- 
tory. 1915. 

3. Bulletins 1, 2, 3, and 5-14 of Research Laboratory of 
National Canners' Assn. Washington, D. C. 

4. Sanitary Control of Tomato Canning Factories. B. J. 

Howard and H. Stephenson. Dept. Bui. 503. U. S. 
D. A. 1917. 

5. Canning of Peas. A. W. Bitting. Bui. 125. U. S. 
D. A. Bureau of Chemistry. 

0. Fruit and Vegetable Products. C. I. Lewis and W. S. 
Brown. Oregon Agr. College Bui. 128. 1914. 

7. Art of Canning and Preserving. J. Pacrette. 

8. American Commercial Methods of Manufacturing Pre- 

serves, Pickles, Canned Foods, etc. C. A. Shinklc. 

9. Les Conserves de Fruits. A. Rolet. Paris, 1912. 

(French.) 

10. Canning with Bacteriological Technique. E. W. Duck- 
wall. 1905. 

11. Western Conner and Dried Fruit Packer. Chicago. 

(Journal devoted to Canning.) 

12. The Canning Trade. Baltimore. (Journal on Can- 
ning.) 



APPENDIX 263 

References on Drying Fruits and Vegetables 

1. The Evaporation of Fruits and Vegetables. J. S. Cald- 
well. Bui. 148, Washington State Agr. Expt. Station. 
1917. 

2. The Home Drying 'of Fruits and Vegetables. J. S. Cald- 
well. Extension Bui. Series I, No. 27. Washington 
State Agr. Expt. Station. 1917. 

3. Evaporation of Apples. J. S. Caldwell. Bui. 131, 

Washington State Agr. Expt. Station. 1916. 

4. Commercial Evaporation and Drying of Fruits. J. H. 
Beattie and H. P. Gould. Farmers' Bui. 903. U. S 
D. A. 1917. 

5. Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home. Farmers 
Bui. 841. U. S. D. A. 1917. 

6. Home Drying Manual for Vegetables and Fruits. 1917. 

Published by National Emergency Food Garden 
Commission 210-220, Maryland Bldg. Washing- 
ton, D. C. 1917. 

7. Evaporation of Apples. H. P. Gould. Farmers' Bui. 

291. U. S. D. A. 1915. 

8. The Drying of Fruits and Vegetables. Pearl Mac- 
Donald. Pennsylvania Expt. Station. Extension 
Circular 61. 1917. 

9. Drying cf Fruits and Vegetables for Home Consumption. 

North Carolina Extension Circular 50. 1917. 

10. Control of Dried Fruit Insects in California. W. B. 
Parker. U. S. D. A. Dept. Bui. 235. 1915. 

11. Practical Methods of Drying Fruits and Vegetables. 

Connecticut Agr. College Extension Service Form 67. 
1917. ' 

12. Drying Fruits and Vegetables. Addie D. Boot. Mis- 
souri Agr. College Extension Circular 23. 1917. 



264 APPENDIX 

Fruit Juices 

1. Grape Juice. F. T. Bioletti. Circular 108. University 

California Expt. Station. 1913. 

2. Manufacture of Unfermented Grape Juice in California. 

W. V. Cruess and C. J. Hintze. Journal Industrial 
and Engineering Chemistry. April, 1914. Page 
302. 

3. Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes. Charles Dearing. 

Farmers' Bui. 859. 1917. 

4. Bottles for Fruit Juices. (Reprint from Press Bulletin.) 

Connecticut Agr. College. 1917. 

5. Unfermented Apple Juice. H. C. Gore. U. S. D. A. 

Bureau Chemistry Bui. 118. 1908. 

6. Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. 

G. C. Husmann. U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 644. 
1915. 

7. Studies on Fruit Juices. H. C. Gore. U. S. D. A. 

Dept. Bui. 241. 1915. 

8. Loganberry By-Products. C. I. Lewis and F. R. Brown. 

Oregon Agr. College. Bui. 117. 1914. 

Sirups 

1. Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. A. H. Bryan. U. S. 

D. A. Farmers' Bui. 477. 1912. 

2. The Production of Maple Sirup and Sugar. A. H. 

Bryan. U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 516. 1912. 

3. Sugar Beet Sirup. C. O. Townsend and H. C. Gore. 

U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 823. 1917. 

4. Fruit Products. W. W. Chenoweth. Massachusetts 

Agr. College Extension Circular, 46, 1917. 

5. Muscadine Grape Sirup. Charles T. Dearing. U. S. 

D. A. Farmers' Bui. 758. 1916. 

6. Apple Sirup and Concentrated Cider. H. C. Gore. 

Year Book, separate 639. U. S. D. A. 1914. 



APPENDIX 265 

Jellies 

1. Principles of Jelly Making. N. E. Goldwaithe. Bui. 

31, University Illinois. Also Cornell Reading Course, 
Series No. 3, Vol. I, No. 15. 1912. 

2. Jellies and Marmalades from Citrus Fruits. W. V. 

Cruess. Circular 146, University of California Expt. 
Station. 1916. 

3. Jellies, Jams, and Marmalades. Connecticut College 

Emergency Food Series No. 17, 1917. 

4. Fruit Juices and Jellies. W. V. Cruess. Illustrated 

Methods of Food Preservation. University of Cali- 
fornia Expt. Station. 1917. 

5. Jelly Investigations. W. V. Cruess and J. B. McNair. 

Journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 
p. 417, May, 1916. 

Vinegar and Pickles 

1. Vinegar from Waste Fruits. W. V. Cruess. Bui. 287, 
University California Expt. Station. 1917. 

2. Grape Vinegar. F. T. Bioletti. Bui. 227, University 

California Expt. Station. 

3. A Treatise on the Manufacture of Pure Apple Cider 

Vinegar by Quick Process. Hydraulic Press Mfg. 
Co. Mt. Gilead, Ohio. Circular 22. 

4. Home Made Vinegar. F. T. Bioletti and W. V. Cruers. 

Leaflet University California Expt. Station. 1917. 

5. Making Cider Vinegar at Home. F. H. Hall and L. L. 
Van Slyke. Bui. 258. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Station, 
Geneva, N. Y. 1904. 

6. Pickles and Relishes. Carrie Pancoast. Extension 

Circular 35. University Missouri. 1917. 

7. Pickles, Chowchow, Chile Sauce, Sauerkraut, etc. 

Emergency Food Series 21. Connecticut Agr. Col- 
lege Extension Service. 1917. 

8. Cucumbers. L. C. Corbett. Farmers' Bui. 254. U. S. 
D. A. 1917. 



266 APPENDIX 

9. Preservation of Vegetables by Fermentation and Salting. 
L. A. Round and H. L. Lang. U. S. D. A. Farmers' 
Bui. 881. 1917. 

10. Preservation of Vegetables by Salting. W. V. Cruess. 

Illustrated Food Preservation Leaflet. University 
California Expt. Station. 1917. 

11. Preserving Vegetables by Fermentation. Form A-90. 
States Relation Service Office of Extension Work 
South. U. S. D. A. 1917. 

12. Making Sauerkraut. A. T. Erwin. Iowa State Col- 

lege Agr. Emergency Leaflet 24. 1917. 

13. Pickles. Gladys L. Meloche. Rhode Island State 

College. 1917. 

14. Pickles. Extension Division New Jersey Agr. Col- 
lege. 1917. 

15. Manual for Home Storage, Pickling, Fermentation and 
Salting of Vegetables. National Emergency Food 
Garden Commission. Bui. 1917. 210-220 Maryland 
Bldg., Washington, D. C. 

16. Home Pickling of Ripe Olives. F. T. Bioletti. Uni- 

versity California Expt. Station. 1917. 

Meat Preservation 

1. Meat on the Farm. Butchering, Curing, and Keeping. 

Andrew Boss. Farmers' Bui. 183. U. S. D. A. 
1906. 

2. Preservation of Meat. Extension Bui. 12, North Da- 

kota Expt. Station. 1917. 

3. A Meat Curing Contest for North Carolina Pig Club 

Members and Curing Meat at Home. Extension Cir- 
cular 58. North Carolina Expt. Station. 1917. 

4. Method of Preparing and Curing Dried Beef. Mrs. Levi 

Dodge. Leaflet, North Dakota Expt. Station, Feb., 
1917. 

5. Killing Hogs and Curing Pork. F. G. Ashbrook and 

G. A. Anthony. Farmers' Bui. 913. U. S. D. A. 



APPENDIX 267 

Cheese Making 

1. Extension Bui. 47. University Nebraska Expt. Sta- 

tion. Farm Cheese Making. J. H. Fraudsen and T. 
Thorson. 1917. 

2. Studies on the Factors Concerned in the Ripening of 

Cheddar Cheese. E. G. Hastings, Alice Evans, and 
E. B. Hart. Research Bui. 25, University Wisconsin. 
1912. 

3. Farm Cheese Making. Extension Circular 30, Uni- 

versity Missouri Expt. Station. L. G. Runkle. 

4. The Manufacture of Cottage Cheese in Creameries and 

Milk Plants. A. O. Dahlberg. U. S. D. A. Dept. 
Bui. 576. 1917. 

5. Farm Dairy Cheese. R. M. Washburn. Special Bui. 12. 

Agr. Extension Service, University of Minnesota= 
1917. 



INDEX 



Acid, addition to bfino in vegeta- 
ble canning, 49. 
necessity of, in jelly making, 80. 
test for jelly making, (SO. 
Acid, acetic, formation in vinegar, 
116. 
fermentation, control of, in 

vinegar making, 120-124. 
test for vinegar, 124. 
Acid, lactic, formation of, in veg- 
etable preservation, 132. 
fermentation as a means of 
preservation, 132. 
Air, relation to spoiling, 12. 

effect of in pickling olives, 138. 
exclusion of, in pickling, 132, 

228-231. 
necessity of, in vinegar fermen- 
tation, 121. 
Alcohol, antiseptic value of, 17. 
fermentation in fruit wines, 127, 

225. 
fermentation in vinegar making, 
118, 222. 
Antiseptics, in permanent preser- 
vation, 14. 
in temporary preservation, 10. 
Apple, butter, general principles, 
87. 
butter, recipe, 202. 
canning, 165. 
cider, hard, 129, 226. 
cores, and skins, using, 223. 
drying recipes, 211, 216. 
jelly recipe, 198. 
jelly stock, 85 200. 
juice, recipe, 185. 
peeling machine, 26. 
Apple sirup, recipe, 192. 

vinegar, 116-124, 222-225. 
Apricot canning recipe, 162. 
candying, 90, 208. 



Apricot drying, general, 93-112. 

drying recipes, 211, 216. 

jam, 202. 
Artichokes, canning recipe, 171. 

preservation in brine, 228. 
Asepsis as a means of food preser- 
vation, 9. 
Asparagus, canning recipe, 172. 

preservation in brine, 228. 
Aspergillus mold, 4. 

Bacillus botulinus, poisoning by, 

58. 
Bacon, brine treatment, 245. 

dry salting, 245. 

smoking recipe, 248. 

smoke house, illustration, 146. 
Bacteria, lactic fermentation, 132. 

in canned foods, 58. 

in meats, 59. 

in vegetable preservation, 132. 

in vinegar making, 116, 120. 

in milk products, 150-154. 

types of, 6. 
Bag filter, illustration, 64. 
Balling tester for jelly and sirups, 

82. 
Barrel for curing meats, 243. 

for vinegar making, illustration, 
121. 
Barrel for preserving vegetables, 

illustration, 133. 
Beans, botulinus poisoning from, 
58. 

canning recipe, 173. 

dried, canning recipe, 179. 

drying recipe, 218. 

fermentation, 132, 229. 
Beef, brine for preserving, 144, 
244. 

corned, recipe, 244. 

dried, recipe, 248. 



269 



270 



INDEX 



Beets, canning recipe, 173. 

drying recipe, 219-220. 

fermentation of, 132, 229. 

peeling, 173. 
Berries, canning recipes, 167-168. 

drying recipes, 216. 

preserving, 89, 205. 
Blackberry, canning, 168. 

drying, 216. 

jam, 87, 202. 

jelly-making, 198-200. 

juice recipe, 188. 
Blanching, purpose of, 46. 

vegetables, 46. 

vegetables, illustration, 30. 
Boiled cider, 72-76, 192-194. 
Bottles, capping, 67. 

corking, 67. 

filling, 66. 

pasteurizing or sterilizing, 68. 
Bottling fruit juices, 66, 185-1C1. 
Bottling, jelly stocks, 200. 

vinegar, 125, 223. 

wine, 130, 226. 
Brine, acidified for vegetables, 48. 

for beef, 244. 

for butter, 255. 

for cucumbers, 134, 230. 

for fish, recipe, 246. 

for pork, recipe, 243. 

for olives, 240, 241. 

for vegetables, 133, 226. 

for canning vegetables, 48. 
Butter, fruit, general discussion, 
87-89. 

fruit, recipes, 203. 

preservation in brine or salt, 255. 

Cabbage, drying recipe, 219, 220. 

fermentation for sauerkraut, 
228. 
Candied fruits, general discussion, 
90. 

recipes, 208. 
Canned foods, importance of, v. 

spoiling of, 57-59. 
Cahners, factory made, 51. 

steam pressure, 51. 
Canning, equipment, 21-54. 

fruits, general discussion, 21-44. 



Canning fruits, recipes, 157-171. 

meats, general discussion, 55-57. 

meats, recipes, 182-184. 

outfits, factory-made, 51. 

vegetables, general discussion, 
45-54. 

vegetables, recipes, 171-182. 
Cans, sanitary, 32. 

sealing, 29. 

solder top, 28, 158-161. 

spoiled, appearance of, illustra- 
tion, 58. 

types of, illustration, 27. 
Capping bottles, 66. 

machine for bottles, illustration, 
67. 
Caps for glass jars, 25. 

for bottles, 67. 
Carrots, canning recipe, 174. 

drying recipe, 219, 220. 
Cauliflower, pickling, 231. 

preservation in brine, 22N. 
Celery, drying, 220. 
Chalk, precipitated, for fruit 

sirups, 73, 193. 
Cheese, Cheddar, general discus- 
sion, 153. 

Cottage, recipe, 254. 

Gouda, recipe, 251. 
Chemical preservatives, 10, 14. 
Cherries, canning, 164. 

candying, 208-210. 

drying, 215, 216. 

pitting, 24. 

pitter (illustration), 25. 
Chili peppers, canning, 176. 

drying, 220. 
Chili sauce, recipe, 235. 
Chow chow, recipe, 233. 
Chutney, recipe, 237. 
Cider, hard, recipe, 226. 

sweet, recipe, 185. 
Citron, candying, 90-92, 208-210. 
Clarification of fruit juices, recipe, 
64, 190. 

of vinegar, recipe, 223. 
Clarifying materials, 64, 190, 223. 
Cleanliness as aid to preservation, 

9. 
Cold storage, 9. 



INDEX 



271 



Concentration of sirups, 73-75, 

192-198. 
Conserves, general discussion, 89. 

recipes, 20.5-207. 
Containers for canned products, 
25-29. 

for juices, 66. 

for vinegar, 223. 

for wine, 128. 
Cooker, pressure, illustration, 48. 

pressure, description, 50-52. 
Cooling cans after sterilizing, 52. 
Corking bottles of juice, 66, 185. 
Corn, canning recipe, 174. 

drying recipe, 219, 220. 
Crabapple jelly, recipe, 198. 
Cranberry jelly, 198. 
Crusher for fruits, for home use, 
illustration, 61. 

for farm use, illustration, 63. 
Cucumber, dill pickle recipe, 230. 

relishes, recipes, 234-239. 

sweet pickles, recipe, 232. 

vinegar pickles, recipe, 231. 
Currant jelly recipe, 198. 

jelly stock, 200. 

Dill pickles, recipe, 230. 
Dixie relish, recipe, 236. 
Driers for home use, 105. 

for farm use, 104-109. 

illustrations, 105, 106, 107. 
Drying fruit, general discussion, 
93-112. 

recipes, 211-217. 
Drying meats, recipes, 248, 250. 
Drying vegetables, general dis- 
cussion, 112-116. 

recipes, 217-221. 

Eggs, preservation in brine and 
salt, 250. 
preservation in waterglass, 149, 
250. 

Evaporating, 104-109. 

Evaporators, 104-109. 

Exclusion of air as means of preser- 
vation, 12, 17. 

Exhausting, -theory and discussion. 
40. 



Fermentation, alcoholic, in fruit 
wines, 127, 225. 
alcoholic, in vinegar making, 

118-120, 222. 
lactic, in vegetable preservation, 

132, 228-231. 
lactic, in milk, 153. 
vinegar, 120, 223. 
Figs, candying recipe, 208- 
210. 
canning recipe, 166. 
drying, general, 93-112. 
drying recipe, 215. 
jam, 202. 

preserves, recipe, 205. 
sweet pickle, 232. 
Filtration, of fruit juices, 68, 
185. 
of jelly material, 79. 
of vinegar, 125, 223. 
Fire pot, for heating soldering 

steels, illustration, 33. 
Fish, canning, general, 55-57. 
canning recipe, 183. 
drying recipe, 249. 
salting recipe, 246. 
srnoking recipe, 248. 
Flux, soldering, directions for 

making, 259. 
Food, canning, 21-60, 157-185. 
causes of spoiling, 3-9. 
drying, 93-116, 211-222. 
permanent preservation, theory 

of, 12-19. 
temporary preservation, theory 
of, 9-12. 
Food poisoning, 57. 
Fruits, butters, and jams, 87, 
202. 
candying, 90, 208. 
canning, 21-44, 157-171. 
drying, general, 93-116. 
drying, recipes, 211-218. 
jellies and jelly stocks, 76-86, 

198-202. 
juices, 60-72, 185-192. _ 
picking for canning, drying, etc., 

21. 
preserving, 89, 205. 
sirups, 72-76, 192. 



272 



INDEX 



Germs, in relation to spoiling, 3-9, 

57. 
Glass jars, 25. 

Gooseberries, canning recipe, 170. 
Grading fruits and vegetables, 23. 
Greens, canning recipe, 177. 
Grape, jelly, 198. 

juice, general discussion, 60-71. 

juice, recipes, 186. 

sirup, 71, 192. 
Grapes, canning, 169. 

drying recipes, 214. 
Grape fruit, jelly, 198. 

juice, 60-71, 189. 

marmalade, 201. 
Guava jelly, 198. 

Ham, recipes for salting, 243, 245. 

recipe for smoking, 248. 
Home canning outfits factory- 
made, 51. 
home-made, 41. 
Home dryers, 104-108. 
Hominy, recipe for making and 

canning, 179. 
Hydraulic presses, 63. 

Intermittent sterilization, 52. 

Jams, general discussion, 87. 

recipes, 202. 
Jars, closing, illustration, 40. 

filling with hot fruit, illustration, 
31. 

filling with sirup or brine, il- 
lustration, 32. 

types of, illustration, 25. 

washboiler sterilizer, illustra- 
tion, 32. 
Jar rubbers, 26. 
Jellies, acid test, 80. 

clearing juice for, 79. 

cooking the fruit, 77. 

crystallization of, 85. 

fruits for jelly, 76. 

hydrometer test, 82. 

pectin test, 79. 

pectin test, illustration, 76. 

recipes, 198-202 

sealing with paraffin, 83. 



Jellies, sheeting test, 81. 

sterilizing, 84. 

thermometer test, 81. 
Jelly stocks, general, 85. 

recipes, 200. 
Juices, fruit, bottling, 66. 

clarifying, 64, 190. 

filtering, 64. 

fruits, suitable for, 60. 

general discussion, 60-72. 

pasteurizing, 68. 

pasteurizing, illustration, 68. 

recipes, 185-191. 

sealing bottles, illustration, 70. 

Ketchup, cooking, 141, 238. 
general discussion, 141. 
recipe, 238. 

spices, addition of, 238. 
sterilizing, 239. 

Labelling, canned foods, 34, 259. 
Legal standard for vinegar, 259. 
Lemon, candied peel, 101, 208. 
jelly, 77, 198. 
juice, 188. 

marmalade, with oranges or 
grape fruit, 201. 
Lemon juice method of canning 

vegetables, 48. 
Lima beans, canning, 179. 
Lime and lime carbonate, use in 

sirups, 72, 193. 
Lye, for hominy, 179. 

for pickling olives, 240, 241. 
for peeling peaches and apricots, 
163. 

Machine, apple peeling, illustra- 
tion, 26, 212. 

bottle capping, illustration, 67. 

can sealing, illustration, 35, 38. 

slicing, for vegetables, 220. 

vegetable peeling, 104. 
Marmalade, fruit recipe, 201. 

orange, recipe, 201. 

from other fruits, 201. 

sheer, illustration, 86. 
Marmalades, general discussion, 
85. 



INDEX 



273 



Marmalades, recipes, 201. 
Meats, canning, general discussion, 
55-57. 

canning, recipes, 143-150. 

drying, 248, 250. 

preservation of, general discus- 
sion, 143-150. 

preservation of, recipes, 243- 
250. 
Meats, salting, general, 143-145. 

salting, recipes, 243-247. 

smoking, general, 145-148. 

smoking, recipes, 247-250. 
Mixed pickles, recipe, 234. 
Moisture, exclusion of, 10. 
Molds, in relation to spoiling, 3-5. 

destruction of, by heat, 4. 

growth on jelly and fruit, 4. 
Mother of vinegar, use in vinegar 

making, 120. 
Mustard pickles, recipe for, 234. 

Okra, canning recipe for, ISO. 
Olives, brine for canning, recipe 
for, 241. 

brine for green, recipe for, 241. 

canning, 139, 241. 

coloring, by exposure to air, 137. 

green, pickling recipe for, 241. 

first lye treatment of, 137. 

second lye treatment of, 138. 

ripe, pickling recipe for, 240. 

sterilizing, 139, 241. 

vats, in large factory, illustra- 
tion, 137, 138. 

washing out excess lye of, 13S. 
Onions, drying, recipe for, 219. 

pickling, recipe for, 231. 
Orange, candying peel of, 208. 

canning recipe for, 168. 

jelly recipe for, 198. 

juice recipe for, 189. 
Orange-Lemon, marmalade, 201. 

juice, 189. 
Organisms and spoiling, 3-9. 

Paraffin, use of, in sealing jelly, 
83, 200. 
use of, in sealing salted vegeta- 
bles, 132, 228-230. 



Parsnips, canning, 174. 

drying, 220. 
Paste, fruit, 88, 203. 

tomato, recipe for, 239. 
Pasteurization, general, 11. 

of fruit juices, 68. 

of milk, 150. 
Pasteurizer for fruit juices, 68. 
Peach butter, recipe for, 202. 

paste, 203. 

preserves, 205. 
Peaches, candying, recipes for, 208. 

canning, general, 21-44. 

canning recipes for, 157. 

drying recipes for, 211, 216. 

lye peeling, 163. 

pickling recipe for, 232. 

pitting clingstone, 23. 
Peas, canning recipe for, 175. 

drying, 218. 

sterilizing canned, 50, 175. 

sterilizing sun dried, 115. 
Pears, candying, 90, 208. 

canning, recipe for, 163. 

drying, 211. 
Pears, sweet pickling, recipe for, 
232. 

for vinegar, 116. 
Pectin content in various fruits, 
table, 77. 

importance of, in jelly, 77. 

testing, in jelly making, 79. 
Peeling, fruits, 23. 

lye, method, 163. 

peppers and pimentos, recipe 
for, 176. 

vegetables, 45. 
Penicillium mold (blue mold), 3. 
Peppers, canning, 176. 

drying, recipe for, 220. 

peeling, 176. 
Picking fruits for canning, 21. 

fruits for drying, 94. 

vegetables for canning, 45. 
Pickling, fruits and vegetables, 
general, 131-143. 

fruits and vegetables, recipes 
for, 231-243. 
Pimento canning, 176. 

peeling, for canning, 176. 



274 



INDEX 



Pineapple, candying recipe, 208. 

canning, 170. 

juice, 190. 
Plums, canning, 165. 
Pork, brines for preserving, recipes 
for, 243, 245. 

dry salting, recipe for, 245. 

salting and smoking, general, 
143-149. 

smoking, recipe for, 248. 

storing cured, 148. 
Poultry, canning, recipes for, 182. 
Preservation of foods, theory of, 
9-18. 

general discussion of, 18-157. 

recipes for, 157-257. 
Preservatives, 10, 14. 
Preserves, general, 89. 

recipes for, 205-208. 
Press, fruit, illustrations, 02, G3. 
Pressing fruits, G3. 

sorghum, 194. 
Processing, canned foods, 41, 50. 
Prunes, dipping, for drying, illus- 
tration, 96, 97. 

drying, recipe for, 213. 

lye solution for dipping, 214. 

picking, for drying, illustration, 
94. 
Pumpkin, canning, 176. 

drying, 219. 

Quince jelly, 76, 198. 

preserves, recipe for, 205. 

Raspberries, canning, recipe for, 
168. 

drying, recipe for, 216. 

preserving, 89, 205. 
Relishes, recipes for, 233-239. 
Retorts, description of, 50. 
Retort, illustration, 48. 
Rhubarb, canning, without steril- 
ization, 166. 

sterilizing, recipe for, 166. 
Rubbers, jar, 26. 

Saccharometers, description of, 37. 
use of, in jelly making, 82. 
use of, in sirup making, 74. 



Salmon, canning recipe for, 183. 
drying recipe for, 249. 
salting recipe for, 246. 
smoking recipe for, 248. 
Salt, as a preservative, general, 11. 
brines for vegetables, 132-134. 
brines for meats, recipes for, 

243-246. 
brines for olives, recipes for, 
240-242. 
Salting, meats, 245. 

vegetables, general, 131-135. 
vegetables, recipes for, 227-231. 
Saltpetre, use of, in meat preser- 
vation, 144. 
Sanitary cans, 32. 
Sauerkraut, general discussion of, 
132. 
recipe for, 228. 
Scale for home canning, illustra- 
tion of, 28. 
Sealing, bottles, 70. 
cans, 28, 158-161. 
jars, 43. 
Sirup for candying fruits, recipe 
for, 208. 
apparatus for sun evaporation, 

73. 
for fruit canning, 37. 
hydrometers, 37. 
Sirups, general discussion of, 72- 
76. 
recipes for, 192-198. 
Slicing apples, 95. 

machine for vegetables, illus- 
tration of, 220. 
Smokehouse, description of, 146. 

illustration of, 146. 
Smoking beef, recipe for, 248. 

fish, 248. 
Smoking, general discussion of, 
145-148. 
materials suitable for producing 

smoke, 147. 
pork, recipe for, 248. 
recipes for, 247-250. 
Spices, for dill pickles, 230. 

for sweet pickles, 232. 
Spinach, canning, recipe for, 177. 
salting, 227. 



INDEX 



275 



Spoiling of food, general, 3-8. 

of canned foods, 57-60. 
Spoiled food, poisoning from bo- 

tulinus in, 58. 
Spores, bacterial, resistance to 
heat of, 6. 

mold, 3-5. 
Squash, canning recipe for, 176. 

drying recipe for, 219. 
Starters, vinegar bacteria for 
vinegar, 120. 

yeast, for vinegar, 118. 

yeast, for wines, 127. 
Steam pressure sterilizers, 48, 50. 
Steels, soldering, use of , 158-161. 
Sterilization, general, 13. 

of canned fruits, 41. 

of canned meats, 56. 

of canned vegetables, 50. 

of fruit juices, 68. 

of jellies, 84. 
Sterilizers, factory-made, 50. 

home-made, 41. 
Storage of canned foods, 57. 
Storage of cured meats, 148. 

of dried fruit, 110. 

of dried vegetables, 115. 
Straining fruit juices, 64. 
Strawberries, canning, recipe for, 
167. 

preserving, recipe for, 205. 
String beans, canning, 173. 

drying, 218. 

fermentation of, recipe for, 22S. 

salting, recipe for, 227. 
Sugar in candying fruits, 90, 208. 

cane, vs. beet, 39. 

hydrometers, 37. 

in canning, 37-40. 

in jelly making, 82. 

in preserves, 89, 207. 

sirups for canning, 37. 
Sulphuring fruits for drying, 96. 

vegetables for drying, 113. 
Sun drying fruits, 93-104. 

vegetables, 112-114. 
Sweet pickles, recipes for, 232. 
Sweet potatoes, canning, recipe 
for, 178. 

drying, recipes for, 219, 220. 



Table for making canning sirups, 
39. 

showing relation of steam pres- 
sure and temperature, 51. 
Temperature necessary for steril- 
izing fruits, 41. 

necessary for fruit juices, 6S. 

necessary for meats, 56. 

necessary for vegetables, 50. 

of jelly at boiling point, 82. 

used in drying fruits, 105, 216. 

used in drying vegetables, 220. 
Test, acid, in jelly making, 80. 

pectin, in jelly making, 79. 
Thermometer, use of, in jelly mak- 
ing, 82. 

use of, in making preserves, 89. 
Tin cans, sanitary, 32. 

solder top, 28. 

wax top, 26. 
Tipping solder top cans, 160, 161. 
Tomatoes, canning, recipe for, 177. 

drying, recipe for, 220. 

ketchup, recipe for, 238. 

paste, 239. 

peeling, 177. 

pickling, recipe for, 231, 238. 
Turnips, canning, recipe for, 174. 

drying, recipe for, 219. 

Utensils, useful, in canning, 28. 

Vacuum in canned foods, 40. 
Vegetables in brine, general, 132- 
134. 

in brine, recipes for, 228-231. 
Vegetables, canning, general, 45- 
54. 

canning, recipes for, 171-182. 

drying, general, 112-114. 

drying, recipes for, 218-222. 

fermentation of, 132, 228-231. 

grading of, for canning, 45. 

packing dried, illustration of, 
114. 

peeling, 45, 112. 

salting, 131-134, 227-231. 

spoiling of canned, 57. 

sterilizing canned, 50. 

sterilizing dried, 115. 



276 



INDEX 



Vinegar, alcoholic fermentation 

of, 118-120. 
bacteria in vinegar making, 120- 

124. 
clarifying, 125. 
diseases, 125. 
eels, 126. 

fermentation, control of, 121. 
filtering, 125. 
generators, 122. 

generators, illustrations of, 122. 
legal standards for, 259. 
Leo acid tester for, illustration 

of, 124. 
"mother," 120. 
for pickling, 135, 231-235. 
spiced, 232. 
spoiling, 125. 
vats used in large factories, 117. 



Washboiler sterilizer for canning, 

41. 
Washboiler sterilizer for sterilizing 
fruit juices, 68. 
illustration of, 41. 
Watermelon, candying of, rind, 
recipe for, 208. 
preserves, 206. 
Wax top cans, 26. 
"Wine flowers," 125. 
Wines, fruit, general, 126-131. 
fruit, recipes for, 225. 

Yeast as cause of spoiling, 5. 
in making fruit wines, 127. 
use of in vinegar, 118. 



Zinc chloride solderin< 
259. 



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